LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

i 
Class 


First  Lessons 
in  Dairying 


A  HANDBOOK  SETTING  FORTH  THE 
UNDERLYING  PRINCIPLES  -OF  DAIRY- 
ING FOR  THE  STUDENT  BEGINNER  IN 
THE  LABORATORY  AND  ON  THE  FARM 


By 

HUBERT  E.  VAN  NORMAN 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
School  of  Agriculture^  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 
1908 


OKTH£ 

UNIVFRSITY    1\ 


COPYRIGHT,  1908,  BY 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PREFACE 

THE  writer  was  requested  to  prepare  a  book  that 
should  set  forth  briefly  the  underlying  principles 
of  dairying  for  the  student  beginner,  unfamiliar  with 
the  terms  and  laws  of  bacteriology  and  chemistry, 
which  are  the  foundation  sciences  of  dairying,  and 
to  suggest  practice  adapted  to  the  conditions  of 
the  farm  as  distinct  from  those  of  the  creamery  and 
cheese  factory.  The  underlying  principles  are  the 
same,  but  the  practice  is  different  in  farm  and  fac- 
tory butter  making. 

The  accumulating  store  of  dairy  knowledge  has 
become  too  great  to  satisfactorily  present  it  all  in 
one  volume.  The  problems  of  the  producer  have 
been  treated  in  a  recent  book,  and  it  is  only  a  year 
ago  that  the  creamery  butter  maker  was  provided 
with  a  text  book  covering  his  work.  Therefore,  it 
is  the  needs  of  the  farm  butter  maker  and  handler 
of  milk  for  the  factory  or  shipping  station  that  the 
writer  has  attempted  to  meet. 

No  effort  has  been  made  to  make  detailed 
acknowledgment  of  the  source  of  many  facts  pre- 
sented, but  the  works  of  Profs.  H.  H.  Wing,  J.  W. 
Decker,  W.  H.  Dean,  McKay  and  Larsen,  John 
Michels  and  the  Experiment  Station  bulletins  have 
been  freely  consulted  and  literal  quotations  made 
without  other  acknowledgment  than  this.  In 
other's  words,  "I  have  gathered  me  a  posy  of  other 
men's  flowers,  and  nothing  but  the  thread  which 
binds  them  is  mine  own."  H.  E.  VAN  NORMAN. 

STATE  COLLEGE,  PA.,  January  i,  1908. 

1 K6470 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  SECRETION  OF  MILK i 

II.  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK n 

III.  CREAMING 20 

IV.  FERMENTATION        33 

V.  CREAM  RIPENING 37 

VI.  CHURNING 43 

VII.  MARKETING  MILK 54 

VIII.  EQUIPMENT       70 

IX.  BABCOCK  TEST        75 

X.  BUTTER  JUDGING  AND  GRADING 78 

XL  HISTORICAL        84 

APPENDIX 90 


First  Lessons  in  Dairying 


CHAPTER  I 

Secretion  of  Milk 

Incentives  to  secretion. — The  birth  of  the  young  is 
the  primary  incentive  to  the  secretion  of  milk  by 
all  animals  which  suckle  their  young.  In  some  cases 
manipulation  of  the  secretory  glands  has  induced 
the  secretion  of  milk. 

Development  of  the  udder. — In  the  wild  animals 
and  the  modern  scrub  cow  the  udder  is  small  and 
imperfectly  developed.  Improved  feeding,  selec- 


DOLLY  BLOOM,  FAMOUS  GUERNSEY  (l2,77O). 
RECORD:  MILK,  17,297  POUNDS;  BUTTER  FAT,  836.2  POUNDS 


2  FIRST    LESSONS   IN    DAIRYING 

tion  and  breeding  have  developed  the  udder  of  the 
cow  until  we  have  reports  of  an  udder  which 
weighed  41  pounds  and  6  ounces;  another  which 
measured  nearly  6  feet  in  circumference,  or  writhin 
6  inches  of  the  animal's  heart  girth ;  and  others  that 
have  secreted  over  100  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day, 
another  more  than  the  animal's  weight  of  milk  in 
less  than  two  weeks  and  its  own  weight  of  butter 
fat  within  a  year,  and  over  ten  tons  of  milk  within 
a  year. 

Structure  of  the  cow's  udder. — The  udder  of  the 
cow  is  described  as  one  large  gland  with  four  distinct 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  COW'S  UDDER  AND  ENLARGED  ALVEOLI  SHOWING: 

A,  EPITHELEAL  CELLS  ENLARGED.  AS  WHEN  GIVING  MILK,  AND 

B,  THE  SAME  WHEN    NOT  IN    MILK 


SECRETION    OF    MILK 


LONGITUDINAL   SECTION  OF  A  QUARTER  OF   AN   UDDER 


4  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

quarters,  also  as  two  separate  glands.  It  is  sus- 
pended from  the  abdominal  walls  in  a  fibrous  cap- 
sule, and  is  held  together  by  fibrous  tissue.  Doctor 
Bitting  has  shown  by  injecting  colored  liquids 
through  the  teats  that  the  halves  are  again  very  dis- 
tinctly divided  into  two  parts,  and  that  only  the  milk 
produced  in  any  quarter  can  be  drawn  from  the  cor- 
responding teat. 

A  longitudinal  section  of  a  quarter  and  teat  shows 
that  the  opening  of  the  teat  is  guarded  with  a 
sphincter  muscle.  A  cavity  through  the  length  of 
the  teat  is  lined  with  folds  of  tissue,  and  just  above 
the  teat  is  another  cavity  known  as  the  milk  cistern. 
This  is  not  large,  holding  but  a  few  ounces,  and 
ducts  open  from  this  into  the  tissue  of  the  gland. 
These  ducts  divide  into  smaller  branches,  which 
eventually  end  in  little  groups  of  cavities,  the  alveoli 
or  ultimate  follicles.  These  alveoli  are  in  groups 
which  may  be  likened  to  a  small  bunch  of  grapes. 
They  are  lined  with  epithelial  cells  and  surrounded 
by  a  network  of  little  blood  vessels,  which  nourish 
them.  They  vary  in  size  from  1/250  to  i/ioo  of  an 
inch  in  length  and  from  1/1300  to  1/800  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

The  blood  leaves  the  heart  through  the  posterior 
artery  which  divides  in  the  region  of  the  hips.  Here 
it  again  divides  into  two  arteries,  the  common  iliacs, 
and  again  into  two  more  arteries,  from  which,  after 
these  have  divided  into  many  small  capillary  ar- 
teries, the  cell  tissue  in  the  alveoli  is  fed. 

Milk  veins. — The  cells  use  such  portions  of  the 
blood  as  they  need,  and  capillary  veins  begin  to 


SECRETION   OF  MILK 


6  FIRST   LESSONS   IN    DAIRYING 

gather  the  venous  blood  into  ever  enlarging  veins, 
until  it  is  collected  in  large  veins  just  under  the 
skin  and  surrounding  the  upper  part  of  the  udder 
much  like  a  rope  tied  around  it.  From  this  sur- 
rounding vein,  or  rather  group  of  veins,  for,  accord- 


THE  VEINS  AROUND  THE  BASE  OF  THE  UDDER 

ing  to  Bitting,  there  are  from  fourteen  to  seventeen 
of  them,  large  veins  run  from  the  fore  part  and 
posterior  part  of  the  udder  back  to  the  heart. 
These  are  the  so-called  milk  veins.  They  do  not 
contain  milk,  but  are  an  indication  of  the  milk- 
making  capacity  of  the  udder,  in  so  far  as  they 


SECRETION    OF    MILK  7 

indicate  the  quantity  of  blood  carried  from  the 
gland.  If  there  happens  to  be  pressure  on  the  an- 
terior veins,  the  blood  may  return  to  the  heart  by 
way  of  the  posterior  veins.  The  veins  which  run 
forward  are  often  very  torturous  and  may  branch 
several  times.  They  enter  the  chest  wall  through 


MARY    MARSHALL,    A  GUERNSEY  WINNER  AT    THE    PAN- AMERICAN 

EXPOSITION  ;    HAS  LARGE,  TORTUOUS   MILK  VEINS  AND 

EXCELLENT  DAIRY   CONFORMATION 

openings,  termed  milk  wells,  which  are  sometimes 
large  enough  to  insert  the  end  of  the  finger.  Large 
tortuous  veins  are  considered  an  indication  of  abil- 
ity to  secrete  large  amounts  of  milk.  However,  if 
the  hole  in  the  abdominal  wall  is  small  these  large 
veins  may  be  the  result  of  congestion  of  the  blood 
at  that  point. 
Theory  of  milk  secretion. — The  work  of  the  mam- 


8 


FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 


mary  glands  is  secretory.  Milk  as  such  does  not 
exist  in  the  blood  or  elsewhere  in  the  body.  Dean 
says  the  source  of  the  different  milk  constituents 
are  probably  somewhat  as  follows : 

"The  water  is  derived  from  the  food  and  drink  of 


LARGE  MILK  VEIN,  AND  PROMINENT  VEINS  ON  THE  UDDER 

the  cow  by  transudation  from  the  blood,  hence  the 
importance  of  clean  food  and  pure  water  for  the 
cow. 

"The  fat  comes  from  the  albuminous  portions  of 
the  food,  and  also,  in  all  probability,  to  some  extent 
at  least,  from  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  of  the  food. 


SECRETION    OF    MILK  9 

"The  casein,  albumen,  and  sugar  of  the  milk  are 
probably  derived  from  the  nitrogenous  parts  of  the 
food,  through  a  special  cell  activity. 

"The  ash  or  mineral  matter  comes  partly  from 
the  mineral  matter  in  the  food  by  transudation, 
and  partly  as  a  result  of  cell  activity  in  the  gland." 


LACKING    FORE  UDDER  DEVELOP- 
MENT 


AN  ABNORMALLY  SHAPED  UDDER 


These  are  brought  together  in  the  udder  and  dis- 
charged as  milk.  Much  of  the  activity  takes  place 
during  the  milking  operation,  as  the  slaughter  of 
cows  which  have  been  giving  large  amounts  of  milk 


UNBALANCED  AND  BADLY  CUT  UP  FUNNEL-SHAPED  UDDER 


IO  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

up  to  the  time  they  were  killed,  with  apparently 
full  udders,  showed  only  a  small  amount  of  milk 
in  the  udder  immediately  after  death. 

Shape  of  the  udder. — The  well-shaped  udder  is 
one  that  comes  well  forward,  extends  well  up  be- 
hind, has  good-sized  teats,  squarely  placed,  and 
which  is  covered  with  elastic  yellow  skin  and  fine 
hairs. 

A  fleshy  udder  consists  largely  of  fibrous  tissue 
and  lacks  in  the  secreting  glandular  tissue.  Such 


l     /    \ 

A  WELL-SHAPED  UDDER.    RUTILA's  DAUGHTER  (6,670).    ONE  YEAR'S 

RECORD:  MILK,  8,988;  BUTTER  FAT,  489.8.    OWNED  BY 

H.  M'KAY  TWOMBLY,  NEW  JERSEY 

an  udder  does  not  milk  down  when  the  milk  is 
withdrawn.  In  the  young  animal  the  udder  is  held 
firmly  to  the  abdominal  walls,  while  in  old  age  the 
muscles  stretch,  allowing  the  udder  to  become 
pendant. 


CHAPTER  II 

Composition  of  Milk 

MILK  contains  all  the  food  elements  and  in  the 
proper  proportion  for  the  development  of  the  young 
animal.  The  proportion  of  each  differs  in  the  milk 
of  different  species  of  animals  and  of  different  in- 
dividuals in  the  same  species.  It  also  varies  from 
season  to  season  and  from  day  to  day.  Some  varia- 
tions are  accidental,  due  to  immediate  environment ; 
others  seem  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  young  growing  animal  for  which  it  is  the  food ; 
while  others  are  characteristic  of  the  breed  and 
the  individual.  The  following  diagram  represents 
the  average  composition  of  cow's  milk,  indicating 
also  the  principal  portion  of  the  body  to  the  de- 
velopment of  which  it  contributes : 

"  Water  87$.     For  the  water  of  the  body. 

(Fat  4%  \  For  heat 

f  Sugar  5%  f    and  fat       f  Muscle 
I  Casein  3%        )  Protein J  £e?don 
Solidsnot|Albume-44     for     j  g^ 
Fat  9$      LAsh  .6%    For  bone          LHorn 

The  following  shows  the  extreme  percentage  of 
each  constituent  as  given  by  Koenig : 

Maximum  Minimum 

Water   90.69  80.32 

Fat  6.47  1.67 

Casein 4.23  1.79 

Albumen    1.44  0.25 

Sugar 6.03  2. ii 

Ash i. 21  0.35 


12  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

Colostrum. — Colostrum  is  the  milk  yielded  the 
first  few  days  after  calving.  It  has  a  reddish  color, 
is  viscous  and  slimy,  contains  a  less  proportion  of 
water  and  sugar,  and  an  increased  proportion 
of  albumen  and  ash,  together  with  colostrum  cor- 
puscles, which  are  probably  broken-down  cell  struc- 
ture from  the  gland.  This  milk  has  a  medicinal 
effect,  helping  to  stimulate  to  activity  the  digestive 
tract  of  the  young  calf,  which  should  be  fed  on  its 
mother's  milk  for  the  first  few  days  of  its  life. 
The  characteristics  of  colostrum  milk  are  not  so 
pronounced  when  the  cow  has  not  been  dry  at 
least  a  short  time  before  freshening.  Under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  milk  becomes  normal  within 
three  or  four  days  after  parturition.  Owing  to  the 
high  percentage  of  albumen,  colostrum  curdles 
when  heated.  This  is  the  common  test  to  tell 
whether  or  not  the  milk  is  normal. 

Colostrum*  Normal  Milk 

Water 71.69%  87.0 

Fat 3-37  4-0 

Casein   4.83  3.0 

Albumen  15.85  0.4 

Sugar  2.48  5.0 

Ash  1.78  0.6 

100.00          100.0 

Fat  globules. — Fat  globules  of  minute  form  exist 

in  the  milk,  forming  an  emulsion.     These  globules 

vary  in  size  from  1/1500  to  1/40000  of  an  inch  in 

diameter;  in  other  words,  it  would  require  40,000, 

*Engling. 


COMPOSITION   OF    MILK  13 

placed  side  by  side,  to  make  a  row  an  inch  long. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  a  single  drop  of  milk 
may  contain  as  many  as  150,000,000  of  fat  globules. 
Jn  order  to  count  them,  a  definite  quantity  of  milk 
is  diluted  and  drawn  into  a  very  fine  glass  tube  and 
examined  under  a  microscope. 

Relative  size  of  globules. — The  size  of  fat  glob- 
ules varies  with  different  breeds  and  with  different 
individuals  in  the  same  breed.  The  globules  be- 
come smaller  as  the  period  of  lactation  advances. 
Generally  speaking,  Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk  has 
the  larger  fat  globules,  while  the  Ayrshire  and 
Holstein  milk  has  the  smaller  globules.  The  New 
York  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva  reports  the 
following  observations  on  the  average  size  of  the 
fat  globules  in  the  fraction  of  an  inch : 


Holstein. 
Ayrshire. 
Devon. . . 
Guernsey, 
Jersey.... 


10370 

i 
9350 

i 


9630 

The  larger  globules  in  Jersey  milk  may  be  five  or 
six  times  as  large  as  the  smaller  ones.  With  most 
cows  the  globules  are  smaller  late  in  the  period  of 
lactation. 

Butter  fat. — Butter  fat  is  composed  of  several 
distinct  fats  with  different  characteristics.  Some 
are  volatile,  i.  e.,  may  be  driven  off  in  vapor;  others 


14  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

are  non-volatile.  Some  melt  at  a  temperature  of 
57°  F.,  while  others  require  a  temperature  of  144°, 
yet  when  gathered  together  as  butter  the  melting 
point  is  from  90°  to  99°.  Something  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  character  of  fats  may  be  seen  by  melt- 
ing butter  in  a  tall  bottle  and  allowing  it  to  stand 
at  a  temperature  of  80°  for  several  days.  Richmond 
gives  the  following  composition  of  butter  fat: 

(Butyrin    ...  3-85% 

8%  Volatile \  Caprion   ...  3.60% 

[Caprylin...     .55% 


Better  Fat 


92%  Non- Volatile 


Caprin   1.9  % 

Laurin   7.4  %! 

Myristin  ..  .20.2  %) 
Palmitin  ...257  %|  Hard  fat 
Stearin  ....   1.8  %|j  melt  144' 
Olein 35.0  %:=Soft,  57° 


Fat  variations. — The  fat  is  the  most  variable  con- 
stituent in  the  milk.  The  breed,  individuality, 
period  of  lactation,  first  and  last  milk,  periods  be- 
tween milkings,  change  of  milkers,  change  of 
weather,  change  of  feed,  and  abuse,  all  influence  the 
per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

We  have  four  distinct  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  de- 
veloped under  markedly  different  conditions  of  feed 
and  climate.  The  Channel  Island  breeds  yield  a 
moderate  amount  of  milk  with  relatively  large,  fat 
globules  and  high  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  Scotch 
Ayrshires  give  a  medium  per  cent,  of  fat  and  glob- 
ules which  are  relatively  small ;  and  the  big  black 
and  white  Holsteins  from  Holland  yield  large 
amounts  of  milk  relatively  low  in  butter  fat,  the 


COMPOSITION   OF   MILK 


globules  being  rather  small,  with  some  large  ones. 
The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  reports  the 
following : 


Breed 

Total 
Solids 

Fat 

Milk 
Sugar 

Proteids 

Ash 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Ayrshire.  .  .  . 
Guernsey  .  .  . 
Holstein  
Jersey.  . 

12.70 
14.48 

12.12 
Id  3d 

3-68 
5.02 
3.51 

A    78 

4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

A    8«J 

3.48 
3-92 
3.28 
•3  06 

0.69 
0.75 
0.64 

O  75 

Individuals  and  grades  of  these  breeds  show  wide 
departures  from  the  average  of  the  breed  in  the 
per  cent,  of  fat  and  in  other  characteristics.  These 
variations  are  characteristic  of  the  breed  and  the 
individual  and  cannot  be  materially  changed  perma- 
nently. The  following  are  temporary  variations. 
With  the  advance  in  the  period  of  lactation,  the  per 
cent,  of  fat  decreases  slightly  the  first  two  or  three 
months  and  gradually  increases  through  the  period 
of  lactation. 


Month  of  Lactation 
I 

Per  cent,  of  fat 
in  milk 

4.54 

2               

4,-i-j 

? 

4  28 

A 

4.7Q 

4  38 

6      

4.  ^ 

7 

4.  ^6 

8       

4.66 

4.70 

10 

5.00 

l6  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

The  first  milk  drawn  may  have  as  little  as  0.8  to 
2  per  cent.,  while  the  last  half  pint  may  contain 
from  8  to  14  per  cent,  of  fat,  though  the  average  in 
the  entire  mess  might  be  only  4  per  cent. 

The  night's  and  morning's  milk  usually  differ  in 
the  per  cent,  of  fat,  the  milk  being  richer  after  the 
shorter  and  quieter  period. 

Change  of  milkers  disturbs  the  per  cent,  of  fat 
unless  the  cows  are  regularly  accustomed  to  having 
different  milkers  each  time. 

Departures  from  the  regular  time  of  milking  may 
cause  slight  changes.  Change  of  weather  and  feed, 
abuse  or  fright,  all  are  reflected  by  a  variation  in 
the  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  yield  of  fat  is  more  con- 
stant than  the  yield  of  milk,  generally  speaking,  and 
any  influence  that  lessens  the  milk  yield  temporarily 
will  usually  raise  the  fat  percentage,  and  vice 
versa,  both  returning  gradually  to  the  normal. 
With  cows  in  the  normal  condition,  usually  well 
fed,  we  have  not  yet  learned  how  to  materially  in- 
crease the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  for  any  con- 
siderable period  of  time,  though  good  feeding  can 
nearly  always  be  relied  upon  to  increase  the  total 
yield  of  both  milk  and  fat,  so  that  method  of  feed- 
ing which  increases  the  milk  yield  increases  the  fat 
yield.  Exposure  to  cold  storms  cuts  down  the 
yield  of  both  fat  and  milk. 

Milk  sugar. — Milk  sugar,  or  lactose,  forms  one- 
third  of  the  solids  of  the  milk  and  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  solids  of  separator  skim  milk.  It  is  less 
sweet  than  beet  or  cane  sugar,  and  is  obtained  com- 
mercially from  the  whey  at  cheese  factories.  It 


COMPOSITION   OF   MILK  17 

may  also  be  separated  by  coagulating  skim  milk 
with  acid,  straining  out  the  curd  and  then  heating 
to  the  boiling  point,  when  the  albumen  will  be  pre- 
cipitated. Let  this  settle  and  decant  the  clear 
liquid,  or  filter  it  and  then  boil  to  dryness.  The 


Wo.  I. 


4Lbs. 


THE  MILK  YIELD  OF  SIX  COWS  FOR  SIX  WEEKS,  SHOWING  THE 
SEVERE  FALLING  OFF  IN  YIELD  OF  BUTTER  FAT  THE  WEEK  OF 
NOVEMBER  2O-27,  AS  A  RESULT  OF  A  SEVERELY  COLD  RAIN- 
STORM, NOVEMBER  17  TO  IQ.  ARIZONA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

milk  sugar  and  ash  will  be  left  behind  in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder.  Milk  sugar  has  not  been  studied 
as  much  as  the  fat  and  casein,  but  the  amount  in 
milk  is  reported  to  vary  from  3  to  6  per  cent.,  with 
an  average  of  5  per  cent.  It  is  a  carbohydrate  and 
is  a  valuable  part  of  whey  or  skim  milk  for  feeding 
to  calves  or  pigs. 


l8  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

Casein. — The  casein  is  suspended  in  milk  in  an 
extremely  finely  divided  or  colloidal  condition.  It 
is  associated  with  the  insoluble  calcium  phosphate. 
It  is  coagulated  by  rennet  and  dilute  acids,  but  not 
by  ordinary  heat.  It  forms  the  basis  of  a  great 
many  kinds  of  cheese.  In  cheese  making  most  of 
the  fat  is  locked  in  the  casein  curd  formed  by  rennet 
or  acid. 

Albumen. — The  albumen  is  similar  to  the  casein 
in  composition,  and  in  character  resembles  the 
white  of  an  egg.  It  is  not  precipitated  or  curdled 
by  rennet  or  acids,  but  is  precipitated  by  heat.  It 
contains  some  sulphur.  In  cheese  making  it  re- 
mains in  the  whey.  Together  with  casein,  it  forms 
the  group  spoken  of  as  protein  compounds  or 
albuminoids.  Rich  in  nitrogen,  it  contributes  to  the 
supply  of  vital  tissue  and  lean  meat  in  the  body. 
The  percentage  of  protein  compounds  is  less  vari- 
able than  the  fat.  They  increase  with  the  fat  and 
in  the  period  of  lactation,  as  Van  Slyke  shows  in 
the  following  table: 


Month  of 
Lactation 

1  . 

2  . 

3  • 

4  • 

5  - 

6  . 

7  • 

8  . 

9  - 
10 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Protein 

Casein 

Albumen 

3.00 

2-45 

0-55 

2.96 

2-45 

0.51 

3-o8 

2.15 

0.67 

3.10 

2.48 

O.62 

3.10 

2.55 

0-55 

3-75 

2.65 

0.92 

3-66 

2.91 

0.75 

3-77 

3-00 

0-77 

4-03 

3-15 

0.88 

5-05 

3-66 

1-39 

COMPOSITION  OF   MILK  19 

There  is  usually  three  and  a  half  times  as  much 
casein  as  albumen  in  cow's  milk. 

Ash. — The  ash  of  milk  is  the  mineral  matter  that 
is  left  after  burning  off  the  organic  matter.  It  is 
necessary  chiefly  for  the  building  up  of  the  bony 
framework  of  the  growing  animal.  It  is  complex 
and  includes  the  following:  Calcium,  sodium,  potas- 
sium, magnesium,  iron,  phosphorus,  and  chlorine. 
Some  of  these  minerals  exist  in  solution  in  the  milk, 
while  others  are  in  suspension  in  minute  particles 
and  may  be  filtered  out  with  a  porcelain  filter,  which 
could  not  be  done  if  they  were  in  solution.  The 
chemical  form  in  which  some  of  these  minerals 
exist  in  the  milk  has  an  important  bearing  in  cheese 
making.  Heating  milk  sufficiently  changes  the 
chemical  combination  of  some  of  the  mineral  salts 
so  that  rennet  will  not  coagulate  the  milk. 

Coloring  matter. — The  coloring  or  lactochrome  of 
milk  is  associated  with  the  palmitin  fat.  The 
amount  of  coloring  matter  varies  with  different 
breeds  and  different  individuals  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year  chiefly  because  of  the  difference  in  the 
feeds  characteristic  of  these  seasons.  Succulent 
feeds,  such  as  pasture  grass,  silage,  carrots,  and 
beets,  increase  the  coloring  slightly. 


CHAPTER  III 

Creaming 

CREAM  is  that  portion  of  the  milk  rich  in  butter 
fat  which  rises  to  the  surface  on  standing  or  can 
be  separated  by  centrifugal  force. 

Principle. — The  fat  separates  or  rises  to  the  sur- 
face because  of  the  difference  in  specific  gravity  be- 
tween it  and  the  milk  serum;  the  latter,  being  the 
heavier,  is  drawn  down  by  the  force  of  gravity,  thus 
crowding  the  fat  to  the  surface  and  carrying  with  it 
.some  of  each  of  the  other  solids. 

Specific  gravity. — The  specific  gravity  of  any- 
thing is  the  weight  of  a  definite  volume  of  it  com- 
pared with  an  equal  volume  of  water  at  60°  F.  A 
vessel  that  will  hold  1,000  pounds  of  water  will 
hold  930  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  specific  gravity 
of  butter  fat  is,  therefore,  0.93,  while  the  vessel  of 
whole  milk  would  weigh  1,029  pounds  (sp.  gr., 
1.029),  and  full  of  skim  milk  would  weigh  1,035 
pounds  (sp.  gr.,  1.035). 

Lactometer. — The  lactometer  is  a  weighted  glass 
bulb  with  a  long  stem  at  the  top,  graduated  to  show 
the  specific  gravity  by  the  depth  to  which  it  sinks 
in  the  milk.  It  sinks  until  it  displaces  a  volume 
of  milk  equal  to  its  own  weight.  The  lighter  the 
milk,  the  deeper  it  must  sink  to  displace  a  volume 
equal  to  its  own  weight.  Since  the  fat  is  light,  the 
richer  the  milk,  the  lower  the  specific  gravity.  The 
determination  of  the  specific  gravity  does  not  neces- 


CREAMING 


sarily  show  the  quality  of  the  milk,  since  the  fat 
may  be  removed  as  cream  and  sufficient  water 
added  to  restore  the  normal  specific  gravity. 

Quevenne's  lactometer,  commonly  used 
with  milk,  is  graduated  from  15  to  40, 
and  this  reading  is  converted  into  specific 
gravity  by  adding  1,000  and  dividing  the 
sum  by  1,000,  or,  stated  differently,  by 
prefixing  to  the  reading  the  figures  i.o. 

Creaming. — The  size  of  the  fat  glob- 
ules materially  influences  the  rapidity  and 
thoroughness  with  which  they  rise.  The 
larger  the  globules,  the  greater  the  up- 
ward pressure.  This  upward  pressure  of 
the  fat  globules  of  various  sizes  is  in  pro- 
portion to  their  volume,  and  this  is  in 
proportion  to  the  cube  of  their  diameter. 
If  we  have  two  spheres,  one  4  inches  in 
diameter,  the  other  2,  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters  will  be  64  and  8,  so  that  the 
upward  push  of  the  larger  one  will  be 
eight  times  as  great  as  of  the  smaller  one. 
They  are  retarded  in  this  upward  motion 
by  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  in  propor- 
tion to  the  surface  of  the  globules,  which 
are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameter.  Their  squares  will  be  16  and  4, 
and  the  retarding  friction  of  the  liquid 
through  which  the  globules  must  rise  will  only  be  four 
times  as  great  on  the  larger  one  as  on  the  smaller  one, 
so  that  the  greater  the  difference  in  size,  the  easier  and 
more  rapidly  the  larger  ones  rise  to  the  surface. 


COMBINED 
QUEVENNE'S 
LACTOMETER 

AND 
THERMOMETER 


22 


FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 


Methods. — The  princi- 
pal methods  of  creaming 
are  gravity,  by  the  use  of 
shallow  pans,  deep  setting 
or  dilution;  and  centri- 
fugal force,  by  means  of 
the  mechanical  separator. 


B 


THE  RELATIVE  LOSS  OF  BUTTER  IN  THE  SKIM  MILK  FROM  ONE  COW 
IN  ONE  YEAR  BY  THE  DIFFERENT  METHODS  OF  CREAMING. 
A,  HAND  SEPARATOR,  1.2  POUNDS;  B,  DEEP  SETTING,  IO.I 

POUNDS;  C,  SHALLOW  PANS,  26.2  POUNDS;  D,  WATER  DILU- 
TION, 40.5  POUNDS.     [IND.  BUL.   Il6.] 

Per  cent. 

Fat  Left 

f  Shallow  pan 0.4  to  i.o 

-j  Deep    setting 0.3  to  0.5 

[Dilution    (Hydraulic) 0.7  to  i.o 


(Gravity 
fTT  ^ 

_  \  Hand   separator / 

Centrifugal      |Factory   separator. ..  .ja°2  toa°5 

For  gravity  creaming  the  greatest  efficiency  is 
usually  secured  when  milk  is  set  immediately  after 
milking.  Shallow  pans  are  usually  3  to  4  inches  deep, 
12  to  14  inches  in  diameter,  and  should  be  set  im- 
mediately after  milking  in  a  room  with  the  tempera- 
ture as  near  60°  as  possible  for  from  24  to  36  hours. 
The  pans  of  milk  should  be  protected  from  dust,  and 
from  drafts  of  air.  The  latter  dry  the  surface  of  the 


CREAMING  23 

cream  and  unchurned  lumps  are  sometimes  carried 
into  the  butter,  appearing  as  white  or  yellowish 
white  specks.  The  skim  milk  from  this  method  will 
usually  contain  from  0.4  to  1.0  per  cent,  of  fat. 

In  deep  setting  the  essentials  are  a  vessel  7  or  8 
inches  in  diameter  and  22  to  30  inches  in  depth, 
surrounded  with  water  at  or  below  50°  F.,  the 
nearer  40°  the  better.  It  should  stand  from  12  to 
24  hours.  The  cream  may  be  skimmed  from  the 


A  COOLEY  CREAMER 

surface  with  a  conical  skimmer.  Some  cans  are 
provided  with  a  faucet  at  the  bottom  from  which 
to  draw  the  skim  milk,  and  with  a  glass  gauge  or 
window  through  which  to  note  the  approach  of  the 
cream  line  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  when  the 
valve  may  be  closed,  leaving  the  cream  in  the  can. 
A  sloping  bottom  insures  the  removal  of  any  sedi- 
ment with  the  skim  milk. 
In  the  Cooley  creamer  the  cans  were  completely 


24  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

submerged  in  water,  the  cover  being  so  arranged 
that  the  gases  given  off  by  the  milk  were  ab- 
sorbed by  the  water.  The  valve  at  the  bottom 
of  the  can  through  which  the  skim  milk  was 
withdrawn  was  so  arranged  that  it  could  be  set  to 
run  off  the  skim  milk,  leaving  the  cream  in  the  can. 
This  was  done  by  raising  the  discharge  end  of  the 
outlet  tube  as  high  above  the  bottom  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  layer  of  the  cream  on  the  skim  milk. 
These  cans  stood  on  frames,  by  which  they  could 
be  raised  out  of  the  water  and  the  skim  milk  with- 
drawn without  lifting  them. 

Creamers. — There  are  many  forms  of  creamers  on 
the  market  with  different  arrangements  of  the  deep- 
setting  system,  in  attractive  cabinets,  more  or  less 
conveniently  arranged  for  the  easy  withdrawal  of 
the  skim  milk  and  the  easy  cleansing  of  the  vessels. 
The  essential  features  are  the  surrounding  of  the 
milk  with  sufficient  cold  water  to  chill  the  milk 
quickly  to  or  below  50°. 

Since  one  pound  of  water  is  warmed  approxi- 
mately one  degree  in  cooling  one  pound  of  milk 
one  degree,  the  water  must  be  several  degrees 
colder  than  the  temperature  it  is  desired  to  cool  the 
milk  to,  or  else  the  quantity  of  water  must  be 
large. 

A  loss  of  from  0.3  to  0.5  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the 
skim  milk  is  to  be  expected  from  the  deep-setting 
method. 

Dilution. — Diluting  the  milk  with  water,  either 
warm  or  cold,  is  usually  the  most  expensive  system 
of  creaming  offered.  With  the  additional  disadvan- 


CREAMING  25 

tage  that  the  feeding  value  of  the  skim  milk  has 
been  materially  lessened,  the  holding  capacity  and 
the  material  to  be  handled  is  twice  as  much.  Re- 
peated experiments  show  that  the  loss  in  skim  milk 
may  be  from  0.7  to  1.5  per  cent,  of  fat. 

Mechanical  separation. — In  mechanical  separa- 
tion of  cream  sufficient  centrifugal  force  is  devel- 
oped to  cause  a  practically  instantaneous  separation 
of  the  cream  from  the  skim  milk  as  the  milk  flows 
through  the  rapidly  revolving  bowl,  any  one  particle 
of  milk  being  subjected  to  the  centrifugal  force  only 
a  few  seconds. 

Centrifugal  force. — Centrifugal  force  is  that  force 
which  causes  a  body  to  fly  away  from  the  center 
around  which  it  is  revolving.  In  the  shallow-pan 
and  deep-setting  systems,  the  force  of  gravity  act- 
ing upon  the  heavier  skim  milk  draws  it  to  the  bot- 
tom and  forces  the  cream  to  the  surface,  requiring 
hours  for  complete  separation.  In  the  mechanical 
separator  sufficient  centrifugal  force  is  developed  to 
cause  the  skim  milk  and  cream  to  form  two  distinct 
vertical  layers  in  the  rapidly  revolving  bowl  during 
the  short  time  they  are  in  it,  the  skim  milk  layer  be- 
ing next  the  wall  of  the  bowl. 

Centrifugal  separator. — When  a  hollow  vessel  or 
bowl  partly  filled  with  a  liquid  is  revolving  rapidly 
enough,  the  contents  are  distributed  around  the 
sides,  forming  a  vertical  wall,  with  the  center  empty 
from  top  to  bottom.  If  the  liquid  consists  of  two 
materials  differing  in  their  specific  gravity,  as  fat 
and  skim  milk,  the  heavier  will  be  drawn  toward 
the  outside,  forcing  the  lighter  to  the  center  and 


26  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

forming  two  walls  or  layers,  one  within  the  other. 
If  outlets  of  proper  size  have  been  made,  one  open- 
ing into  the  vertical  wall  of  skim  milk,  the  other 
into  the  wall  of  cream,  and  a  continuous  supply  of 
milk  is  delivered  into  the  bowl  near  the  bottom,  it 
will  push  that  which  is  already  in  out  through  the 
respective  openings.  Thus  we  have  milk  entering 
the  bowl  and  cream  and  skim  milk  separating  into 
distinct  layers  as  they  pass  up  through  the  bowl 
and  escaping  through  the  respective  outlets.  This 
is  the  principle  on  which  all  separators  are  based, 
although  some  may  introduce  the  milk  from  the 
bottom,  others  from  the  top,  while  some  take  the 
skim  milk  or  cream  or  both  from  the  top,  others 
from  the  bottom. 

The  introduction  of  internal  devices  either  in- 
creases the  amount  of  time  required  for  the  milk 
to  pass  through  the  bowl,  or  else  divides  it  into  thin 
layers,  which  permit  the  cream  to  more  quickly 
find  its  way  into  the  current  moving  toward  the 
center  of  the  bowl,  unobstructed  by  the  current  of 
skim  milk  moving  away  from  the  center.  Most  of 
the  clean  skimming  machines  approach  more  or 
less  closely  this  latter  arrangement. 

Getting  milk  in  motion. — Most  bowls  have  some 
interior  arrangement  which  assists  the  milk  in 
taking  the  motion  of  the  bowl,  otherwise  the  milk 
would  revolve  more  slowly  than  the  bowl. 

Efficiency. — The  thoroughness  of  mechanical  sep- 
aration depends  on  the  force  generated,  the  rate  of 
inflow,  the  temperature  of  the  milk,  condition  of  the 
milk,  and  the  smooth  running  of  the  machine.  The 


CREAMING 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  DISCS  ON  THE  MOVEMENT  OF  CREAM  AND  SKIM 
MILK  IN  THE  DE  LAVAL  SEPARATOR  BOWL 


HORIZONTAL   SECTION  OF  THE  VERTICAL  BLADES   IN   THE   SIMPLEX, 

WHICH  PERFORM  THE  SAME  SERVICE  AS  THE  DISCS 

IN  THE  DE  LAVAL  SEPARATOR 


28  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

force  generated  depends  on  the  diameter  of  the 
bowl  and  number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  A 
bowl  of  large  diameter  need  not  be  run  so  rapidly 
as  a  bowl  of  smaller  diameter  in  order  to  do  the 
same  work.  The  speed  recommended  by  the  manu- 
facturer should  be  maintained.  If  necessary,  a 
slight  increase  of  speed  will  increase  the  thorough- 
ness of  separation. 

Rate  of  inflow. — This  is  usually  fixed  by  the 
manufacturers  of  hand  separators.  However,  if  the 
inflow  of  milk  is  not  sufficient,  the  cream  may  be- 
come too  thick  and  clog  the  machine. 

Temperature. — Milk  separates  easiest  when  sep- 
arated quickly  after  drawn  from  the  cow.  If  for 
any  reason  it  is  cooled  to  a  temperature  below  80°, 
or  with  some  machines  below  70°,  it  should  be 
warmed  by  placing  the  vessel  of  milk  in  warm 
water.  Milk  that  is  slightly  curdled  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully separated. 

Thickness  of  cream. — The  thickness  of  the  cream 
is  regulated  in  most  machines  by  a  screw  which 
determines  either  the  size  of  the  cream  outlet  or 
its  distance  from  the  center  of  the  bowl,  usually 
the  latter.  The  nearer  the  center,  the  thicker  the 
cream  will  be.  Most  hand  separators  will  do  effi- 
cient work  and  skim  cream  varying  in  richness  from 
15  to  40  per  cent.,  and  in  several  cases  to  50  per  cent., 
of  butter  fat.  An  increase  in  the  speed  of  the 
machine  increases  the  richness  and  lessens  the 
amount  of  cream,  while  a  decrease  in  the  speed  in- 
creases the  volume  of  cream  and  lessens  its  per  cent, 
of  fat.  For  ordinary  purposes  the  cream  screw 


CREAMING  29 

should  be  set  so  that  the  amount  of  cream  is  from 
about  one-sixth  to  one-seventh  as  much  as  the  milk 
from  which  it  was  separated.  Reducing  the  inflow 
of  milk  will  increase  the  richness  of  the  cream. 

If  the  adjustment  of  the  separator  is  such  as  to 
make  the  cream  too  thick,  it  will  clog. 

Smoothness  of  running. — When  the  separator 
does  not  run  smoothly  or  is  not  turned  steadily,  it 
is  apt  to  leave  an  unnecessary  amount  of  fat  in  the 
skim  milk.  A  steady  pressure  should  be  maintained 
on  the  handle  at  all  times  on  each  revolution. 

SEPARATOR  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Study  the  manufacturer's  directions  carefully. 

2.  Place   the  separator  on   a  base   that   does   not 

shake  or  give,  and  in  a  location  as  free  from 
dust  as  possible. 

3.  Level  the  machine  across  the  middle  of  the  bowl 

frame. 

4.  Wipe  the  oil  from  the  tin  parts  of  a  new  ma- 

chine and  wash  with  a  strong  solution  of 
alkaline  washing  powder.  Wipe  dust  and 
dirt  from  the  bearings. 

5.  Use  kerosene  to  clean  the  bearings  and  use  the 

oil  recommended  by  the  manufacturer.  Do 
not  use  a  vegetable  oil,  such  as  castor  oil,  as 
it  gums  up  the  bearings. 

6.  Start  the  machine  slowly,  taking  at  least  three 

minutes  to  bring  it  to  full  speed. 

7.  Fill  the  bowl  with  warm  water  as  soon  as  it  is 


30  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

put  in  motion.  This  prevents  the  cream  stick- 
ing to  the  sides  of  the  bowl. 

8.  When  at  full  speed,  open  the  milk  supply  to  its 

full  capacity  and  see  that  the  motion  of  the 
machine  does  not  cause  this  to  become  partly 
closed. 

9.  Put  an  even  pressure  on  the  crank  handle  at  all 

points  in  its  course.  Avoid  heavy  push  or 
pull  with  no  power  applied  when  the  crank  is 
at  the  bottom  or  top  of  its  circle. 

10.  Keep  sufficient  milk  in  the  supply  can  to  give 

the  machine  its  full  feed  at  all  times. 

11.  If  speed  slackens  materially  while  adding  milk  to 

the  supply  can,  the  valve  should  be  closed. 
If  the  cream  thickens  so  as  to  clog  or  partly 
clog  the  outlets,  the  bowl  should  be  flushed 
with  warm  water. 

12.  When  done  separating,  immediately   flush  the 

bowl  with  enough  warm  water  to  remove  all 
cream.  Skim  milk  may  be  used,  though  not 
quite  so  satisfactory. 

13.  Allow  the  machine  to  stop  of  its  own  accord. 

Do  not  apply  a  brake  of  any  kind  unless  it  is 
provided  by  the  manufacturer. 

14.  Wash  the  machine  after  each  time  it  is  used ; 

rinse  first  with  cold  or  lukewarm  water; 
cleanse  thoroughly  with  a  brush  and  warm 
water  in  which  an  alkaline  washing  powder 
has  been  dissolved ;  rinse  and  scald  with  boil- 
ing water;  do  not  wipe,  but  shake  and  allow 
to  dry  of  its  own  heat. 


CREAMING  31 

DIFFICULTIES 

The  machine  runs  hard. — The  bearings  may  be 
gummed  up.  They  should  be  flushed  with  kero- 
sene, and  in  extreme  cases  should  be  removed  and 
wiped  clean.  Bearings  may  be  out  of  alignment, 
bowl  out  of  balance,  or  the  machine  not  level,  caus- 
ing the  bowl  to  tremble.  The  upper  bowl  bearing 
may  be  loose  or  worn. 

The  machine  leaks. — This  may  be  due  to  the  bowl 
cover  not  being  screwed  down  tight,  rubber  ring 
being  omitted  or  broken  or  nicked,  or  the  bowl 
may  be  too  low  to  discharge  into  the  skim  milk  or 
cream  trays,  or  trays  may  not  be  down  in  place. 

Clogging. — If  the  inflow  of  milk  becomes  reduced 
through  partial  closing  of  the  valve  or  lessened 
supply  of  milk  in  the  can,  the  cream  will  become 
thick  enough  to  wholly  or  partly  clog  the  cream 
outlets.  Flushing  the  bowl  with  warm  water  will 
usually  clear  the  outlets,  without  having  to  stop 
and  wash  the  bowl. 

Variations  in  the  cream  test. — The  per  cent,  of 
fat  in  the  cream  will  vary  from  day  to  day  with  the 
same  herd  and  the  same  persons  doing  the  work, 
because  of  the  variations  in  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in 
the  milk  and  the  temperature  of  the  milk,  the 
amount  of  milk  in  the  supply  can,  the  variation  in 
the  speed  of  the  bowl,  the  amount  of  water  or  skim 
milk  used  to  flush  the  bowl,  partial  closing  of  the 
valve  of  the  supply  can,  imperfect  cleaning  of  the 
bowl,  or  especially  of  the  cream  outlets. 

Advantages. — The     chief     advantages     of     the 


32  FIRST   LESSONS  IN   DAIRYING 

mechanical  separator  are  an  almost  complete  re- 
moval of  the  fat,  avoiding  exposure  of  the  cream 
during  the  hours  required  for  gravity  creaming. 
The  removal  of  some  foreign  material  in  the  bowl 
slime  which  includes  some  albumen  and  casein  and 
bacteria.  This  bowl  slime  should  be  burned  and 
not  allowed  to  dry  or  clog  up  drains.  Again,  the 
skim  milk  still  warm  with  the  animal  heat  has  an 
increased  feeding  value  over  that  secured  by  the 
gravity  method. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Fermentation 

THE  changes  commonly  occurring  in  milk  and 
popularly  called  souring  are  caused  by  minute 
forms  of  plant  life,  called  bacteria,  most  of  which 
gain  access  to  the  milk  after  it  leaves  the  cow,  not 
being  found  in  the  udder  of  the  healthy  animal, 
except  in  the  ducts  of  the  teat.  These  bacteria 
during  the  process  of  their  growth  change  the  con- 
stituents of  the  milk,  forming  new  products,  such 
as  gases,  acid,  bitter  flavors,  and  sometimes  colors, 
as  pink  or  blue  milk,  and  sometimes  producing 
slimy  or  ropy  milk.  Others  produce  the  flavors  that 
are  so  much  desired  in  good  butter  and  other  dairy 
products.  With  many  varieties  always  present,  the 
kind  that  will  dominate  depends  largely  on  the  tem- 
perature at  which  milk  or  cream  is  kept.  All  bac- 
teria are  not,  therefore,  undesirable  or  harmful. 
Bacteria  are  like  the  higher  forms  of  plants,  many 
beneficial  to  man,  some  harmful  and  undesirable. 
Knowledge  of  method  of  growth  and  multiplication 
enables  man  to  control  them  and  make  them  serve 
his  interests. 

Bacteria. — They  consist  of  a  single  cell,  and  are 
so  small  that  a  drop  of  milk  may  contain  millions ; 
they  grow  rapidly  at  a  temperature  of  from  60°  to 
90° ;  they  require  food  and  moisture  like  higher 
forms  of  plant  life,  milk  furnishing  an  ideal  medium 


34 


FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 


unless  quickly  cooled,  as  it  is  at  a  temperature  for 
their  rapid  growth ;  they  are  prevented  from  grow- 
ing by  cold ;  are  killed  by  moist  heat,  most  of  them 
by  a  temperature  of  boiling  water ;  they  remain 
inactive  in  the  spore  form  for  a  long  time,  then 
grow  rapidly  when  conditions  again  become  favor- 
able ;  they  grow  or  multiply  usually  by  division, 
which  may  happen  every  twenty  minutes,  or  may  re- 
quire several  hours  ;  in  the  proc- 
ess of  their  growth  they  cause 
changes  in  the  material  in 
which  they  are  growing.  These 
are  many,  some  desirable,  as  in 
the  souring  of  milk,  when  the 
milk  sugar  turns  to  lactic  acid ; 
in  vinegar  making,  when  the 
fruit  sugar  turns  to  acetic  acid ; 
and  in  wine,  when  the  grape 
sugar  is  converted  into  alcohol. 
In  Swiss  cheese  the  eyes  are 
formed  by  the  imprisonment  of 
gases  developed  by  bacteria. 

Among  the  undesirable  prod- 
ucts are  the  gases  by  bacteria 
associated  with  stable  filth,  a  common  illustra- 
tion being  the  pinholy  or  "spongy"  cheese ;  bitter 
flavors,  which  are  most  common  when  milk  is 
held  for  some  time  at  a  low  temperature,  espe- 
cially in  winter;  ropy  or  slimy  milk  that  is  appar- 
ently not  so  when  drawn  from  the  cow,  but  be- 
comes so  after  standing.  Bacteria  causing  this 
trouble  come  from  stagnant  water.  Cows  wading 


SLIMY  OR  ROPY   MILK 


CREAMING  35 

in  such  places  become  spattered  with  the  water, 
which  dries  on  the  udder  and  flanks,  and  during  the 
milking  process  the  dust  and  bacteria  are  shaken 
off  and  by  the  milk  distributed  over  the  utensils. 
It  requires  extra  pains  and  thorough  boiling  to  rid 
utensils  which  have  had  slimy  milk  in  them  of  this 
kind  of  bacteria. 

Distribution  of  bacteria. — These  minute  forms  of 
life  are  very  widely  distributed,  and  wherever  there 

is  dust  there  are  many 
kinds  of  bacteria.  The 
hands  and  clothing  of  the 
person,  the  dust  of  the 
house  and  stable,  cobwebs 
and  dusty  or  loose  stable 
ceilings,  and  dust  on  the 
SEAMS  A.S  IMPROPERLY  AND  body  of  the  animal  are  all 

B  PROPERLY   SOLDERED  f ruitfUl      SOUrCCS     of      COtt- 

tamination,  especially  if  these  sources  are  so  handled 
as  to  disturb  the  dust.  Cracks,  seams,  and  corners 
of  dairy  utensils  in  which  milk  or  wash  water  is 
allowed  to  remain  will  seed  the  milk  with  bacteria, 
cream  it  is  seeded  with  many  different  kinds  of 
bacteria. 

Control. — In  the  ordinary  handling  of  milk  and 
cream  it  is  seeded  with  many  different  kinds  of 
bacteria. 

The  character  of  the  changes  which  will  occur 
will  be  largely  determined  by  the  kind  of  bacteria 
present,  whether  from  the  dust  of  the  air,  dusty 
hay,  the  flanks  of  the  animal,  the  seams  of  imper- 
fectly washed  utensils,  from  a  good  home-made 


36    .  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

starter  or  a  commercial  starter  from  a  pure  culture. 
The  changes  may  be  retarded  by  excluding  bacteria, 
by  stopping  their  growth  with  cold ;  for,  like  other 
forms  of  plant  life,  they  do  not  grow  when  too  cold. 
Few  forms  common  to  milk  develop  rapidly  at  a 
temperature  of  50°  or  below,  and  practically  no 
development  takes  place  at  the  freezing  tempera- 
ture. They  may  be  destroyed  by  subjecting  them 
to  heat.  Complete  destruction  i.e.  to  render  sterile 
requires  that  milk  be  heated  to  the  boiling  point  for 
twenty  minutes  on  three  successive  days.  Mani- 
festly, this  is  not  commercially  practicable.  Pas- 
teurization is  heating  the  milk  or  cream  sufficiently 
to  destroy  the  vegetative  forms,  which  include  the 
commoner  disease  and  putrefactive  bacteria.  In 
the  vegetative  form  the  bacterium  is  ready  for  active 
growth.  In  the  spore  form  it  can  resist  great  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold  and  may  retain  life  for  a  long 
period  of  time,  ready  to  grow  and  multiply  rapidly 
when  conditions  become  favorable.  The  changes 
may  be  hastened  by  introducing  bacteria,  or  by  a 
favorable  temperature.  The  rapidity  of  the  change 
will  depend  on  the  numbers  of  bacteria  present  and 
whether  the  temperature  is  favorable  to  their  rapid 
growth  or  not. 


CHAPTER  V 

Cream  Ripening 

THE  ripening  of  cream  is  the  treatment  given  it 
to  prepare  it  for  churning.  Upon  this,  together 
with  the  previous  care  of  the  milk,  depends  the 
quality  of  the  butter.  Ripening  depends  on  the 
character  and  the  number  of  bacteria,  the  tempera- 
ture and  the  length  of  time  which  the  cream  is 
held. 

Object. — The  purpose  of  ripening  the  cream 
rather  than  churning  immediately  is  to  produce  the 
desired  flavor,  which  is  the  result  of  bacterial 
growth  and  accompanying  changes,  to  increase  the 
churnability  and  to  increase  the  keeping  quality  of 
the  butter. 

Flavor. — While  it  has  not  been  conclusively 
shown  that  any  one  species  of  bacteria  will  produce 
the  desired  flavor,  it  is  essential  to  have  the  lactic 
acid  forms  predominating.  Some  of  the  pure  cul- 
tures on  the  market  include  two  or  more  species  of 
bacteria,  while  others  have  only  one.  Under 
cleanly  farm  conditions  the  lactic  acid  forms  pre- 
dominate. 

Churnability. — The  formation  of  lactic  acid  dur- 
ing the  ripening  process  lessens  the  viscosity  of  the 
cream,  i.  e.,  the  tenacity  with  which  the  particles 
hold  together,  as  molasses  is  viscous ;  at  the  same 
time  the  cream  becomes  thicker  yet  less  viscous, 


38  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

as  a  sandy  mud  may  be  thick  and  flow  with  diffi- 
culty yet  not  cling  together  as  a  viscous  syrup. 

In  the  less  viscous  ripe  cream  the  fat  globules 
seem  to  move  more  freely,  gathering  together 
with  greater  ease  as  a  result  of  the  agitation  of 
churning. 

Improved  keeping  quality. — The  bacteria  which 
produce  lactic  acid  do  not  injure  the  keeping  quality 
of  the  butter.  If  during  the  ripening  the  putrefy- 
ing and  objectionable  forms  which  do  not  thrive  in 
the  presence  of  the  lactic  acid  have  been  held  in 
check,  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter  will  be 
improved. 

The  bacteria. — Fortunately,  nature  has  provided 
that  the  bacteria  which  will  produce  the  desired 
flavor  are  most  likely  to  predominate  in  the  cream 
if  the  milk  has  been  handled  under  good,  cleanly 
conditions.  The  ripening  of  the  cream  under  farm 
conditions  usually  depends  on  the  bacteria  which 
have  accidentally  gotten  into  it.  This  is  called  the 
natural  method  as  distinct  from  the  use  of  a  starter 
which  may  be  home-made,  as  butter  milk  or  cream 
saved  from  the  last  churning,  skim  milk  which  has 
been  ripened,  or  a  commercial  starter  prepared  with 
a  commercial  culture  of  flavor-producing  bacteria. 
Ordinarily,  good  results  can  be  obtained  by  keep- 
ing the  cream  sweet  at  a  temperature  of  45°  to  50° 
until  enough  is  gathered  for  a  churning,  which 
should  not  be  more  than  two  or  three  days.  The 
entire  lot  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  each  time 
new  cream  is  added.  Eighteen  to  24  hours  before 
churning  time  the  cream  should  be  warmed  to  a 


CREAM    RIPENING  39 

temperature  of  70°  or  75°  and  not  allowed  to  fall 
below  65°  until  ripe,  i.e.  has  the  desired  acid 
flavor. 

Sweet  cream  should  not  be  added  to  that  which 
is  to  be  churned  for  at  least  six  hours  before  churn- 
ing, as  it  makes  churning  more  difficult  and  in- 
creases the  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk.  The  less 
ripened  cream  does  not  give  up  its  fat  as  easily  as 
that  which  is  properly  ripened,  and  the  butter  will 
be  overchurned  before  it  separates  completely  from 
the  buttermilk  or  the  churning  stopped  too  soon  with 
a  corresponding  loss  of  fat. 

The  temperature  can  be  more  easily  controlled 
during  the  ripening  if  the  can  of  cream  is  placed 
in  a  larger  vessel  and  surrounded  with  water  at  the 
right  temperature.  It  may  be  warmed  or  cooled  by 
changing  the  water  and  stirring  the  cream.  In 
cold  weather  it  may  be  desirable  to  so  arrange  the 
vessel  of  water  containing  the  can  of  ripening  cream 
that  a  lamp  can  be  placed  under  it  and  thus  main- 
tain the  temperature  during  the  ripening. 

Usually  the  best  butter  can  be  made  from  cream 
that  is  ripened  and  ready  to  churn  within  24  or 
36  hours  from  the  time  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow. 

Under  farm  conditions,  the  use  of  a  starter  is  only 
to  be  recommended  where  large  quantities  of  the 
best  butter  are  desired,  and  the  extra  labor  required 
to  prepare  them  right  is  justified,  since  a  poor 
starter  will  just  as  surely  make  poor  butter  as  a 
good  one  will  good  butter,  or  where  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  getting  the  cream  sour,  or  where 
undesirable  bacteria  have  become  distributed  on  the 


4O  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

utensils,  preventing  the  securing  of  the  proper 
flavor  in  the  butter. 

For  large  churnings  and  in  factory  work,  it  is 
possible  to  secure  a  commercial  culture  which  is 
merely  a  pure  culture  of  desirable  flavor-producing 
bacteria,  and  is  put  on  the  market  by  laboratories 
which  make  it  a  business  to  prepare  it. 

Home-made  starter. — A  home-made  or  skim-milk 
starter  may  be  made  by  selecting  the  milk,  if  possi- 
ble, from  a  cow  that  has  been  fresh  within  two  or 
three  months.  This  may  be  run  through  the  sep- 
arator before  the  other  milk  and  put  in  two  or  three 
ordinary  fruit  jars  or  milk  bottles  which  have  been 
sterilized  by  placing  them  in  warm  water  and  bring- 
ing it  to  a  boil,  then  cooling,  keeping  bottles  or 
jars  inverted  until  ready  for  use.  The  skim  milk 
should  be  warmed  to  a  temperature  of  90°  and  held 
as  nearly  at  this  temperature  as  possible  until  the 
milk  begins  to  coagulate.  If  for  any  reason  the 
temperature  falls  too  low,  say  below  70°,  it  may 
be  raised  by  placing  the  bottles  in  warm  water.  It 
will  help  to  keep  the  milk  warm  if  the  jar  is  placed 
in  a  larger  vessel  of  water  at  the  desired  tempera- 
ture. When  coagulated,  the  starter  should  have  a 
pleasant  acid  flavor,  free  from  undesirable  taints. 
The  ripening  of  two  or  three  starters  from  different 
lots  of  milk  at  the  same  time  will  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity for  comparative  study  and  for  the  selection 
of  the  best  starter  to  use.  Buttermilk  or  cream 
from  a  previous  churning  may  be  used  if  the  butter 
was  of  satisfactory  quality,  and  the  buttermilk  or 
cream  does  not  have  to  be  kept  a  day  or  two  before 


CREAM    RIPENING  4! 

it  is  used.  There  is  always  some  risk  that  any 
faults  will  be  more  apparent  in  the  succeeding 
churning. 

Commercial  starter. — Directions  for  preparing  a 
starter  from  commercial  cultures  usually  accom- 
pany each  package  of  culture,  the  several  manu- 
facturers recommending  slight  differences  of  pro- 
cedure. Some  cultures  develop  more  rapidly  than 
others.  The  following,  however,  is  the  general 
practice.  To  a  pint  and  a  half  of  skim  milk  which 
has  been  thoroughly  pasteurized  for  20  minutes  at 
a  temperature  of  180°,  or  better  at  200° — this  may 
be  done  by  placing  the  vessel  of  milk  in  a  larger  one 
of  water  and  heating  on  the  stove,  and  then 
cool  to  90° — add  a  small  bottle  of  pure  culture, 
care  being  exercised  to  avoid  exposure  to  other  con- 
taminations. This  should  be  kept  warm  from  12 
to  24  hours,  depending  on  the  culture  used.  This 
is  best  accomplished  by  placing  the  jar  in  a  wooden 
vessel  of  water  at  the  desired  temperature.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  it  should  be  just  coagulating,  and 
should  have  a  pleasant  acid  flavor  free  from  un- 
desirable taints  and  odors.  This  is  commonly 
called  the  mother  starter.  From  two  to  five  per 
cent,  of  this  mother  starter  should  be  introduced 
into  another  lot  of  pasteurized  skim  milk  and 
ripened  in  the  same  way  at  a  temperature  of  65°. 
The  starter  may  be  propagated  from  day  to  day  as 
long  as  it  remains  good,  usually  one  to  three  weeks, 
depending  chiefly  on  the  skill  of  the  maker  in  prop- 
erly sterilizing  the  utensils  and  avoiding  contamina- 
tion. The  starter  is  usually  better  after  the  second 


42  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

or  third  propagation  from  the  pure  culture.  From 
two  to  ten  per  cent,  as  much  starter  may  be  used 
as  cream.  The  larger  the  amount  of  starter,  the 
less  time  will  be  required  to  ripen  the  cream  and 
the  greater  the  probability  that  the  characteristics 
of  the  good  starter  will  predominate  in  the  ripening 
cream. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Churning 

CHURNING  is  the  gathering  together  of  the  fat, 
which  carries  with  it  a  little  moisture  and  some 
curd,  to  which  is  added  some  salt,  altogether  con- 
stituting butter.  Easy  and  thorough  churning  de- 
pends on  the  ripeness  of  the  cream,  its  tempera- 
ture, and  the  nature  of  the  agitation. 

Ripeness  of  the  cream. — When  ready  for  the 
churn  the  cream  should  have  a  pleasant  acid  flavor, 
a  smooth,  velvety  appearance,  and  should  be  thick 
enough  that  it  will  adhere  in  a  thick  coating  to  the 
paddle  or  spoon. 

Farm  conditions  hardly  justify  the  use  of  any  of 
the  tests  for  determining  the  ripeness  of  the  cream. 
These  tests  are  based  on  the  fact  that  a  definite 
quantity  of  alkali  will  unite  with  a  definite  quan- 
tity of  the  acid  in  the  cream.  By  using  an  alkali  of 
known  strength,  it  is  easy  to  measure  the  amount 
of  acid  that  has  developed  during  the  ripening. 
From  five  and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half  tenths  of  a 
per  cent,  of  acid  at  churning  time  is  usually  suffi- 
cient. 

The  tests  for  this  purpose,  with  directions  for 
their  use  accompanying,  which  may  be  purchased 
from  any  dairy  supply  firm,  are  the  Farrington's, 
Van  Norman's,  and  Mann's. 

Temperature. — The  globules  of  fat  are  supposed 


44 


FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 


to  exist  in  the  newly  formed  milk  in  the  form  of  a 
liquid,  and  low  temperature  and  agitation  cause 
these  to  solidify.  Just  when  this  occurs  is  not  im- 
portant. The  fact  remains  that  when  the  cream 
has  been  held  at  churning  temperature  or 
(jj^  lower  for  a  couple  of  hours  before  churn- 

ing begins,  the  butter  will  be  harder  than 
if  the  cream  was  cooled  to  churning  tem- 
perature and  then  immediately  put  into 
the  churn.    The  fat  changes  temperature 
more    slowly    than    does    the    serum    in 
which  it  floats.    Since  the  fat  of  all  cream 
is  not  equally  hard  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture, the  churning  should  be  done  at  that 
temperature   which   will   produce   a   firm 
butter  in  from  15  to  40  minutes  of  churn- 
ing, if  other  conditions  are  right.     Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cream,  the  quicker  the  churn- 
ing and  the  larger  the  loss  of  butter  fat 
in   the  buttermilk ;   while   the   lower  the 
temperature,  the  slower  the  churning,  the 
harder  the  butter,  and  the  less  fat  there 
is  left  in  the  buttermilk.     A  temperature 
FLD°AiRYNG     between   55°   and  64°   will   usually   give 
THER-        satisfactory    results.      With    some    cows, 
MOMETER      ancj  whcn  giuten  feeds  are  fed,  a  lower 
temperature   may   be   required.      Butter   has   come 
soft  from  such  cream  when  churned  as  low  as  48°. 
On   the  other  hand,   the   cream   from   Jerseys   and 
Guernseys  may  need  the  higher  temperature,  while 
the    feeding    of    cottonseed    meal    usually    raises 


CHURNING  45 

the     churning     temperature     from     two     to     six 
degrees. 

Agitation. — In  most  churns  the  agitation  is  a 
combination  of  friction,  i.  e.,  slipping  of  the  particles 
of  cream  one  against  the  other,  and  concussion, 
i.  e.,  the  shock  due  to  the  falling  or  dashing  against 
the  sides  of  the  churn.  Generally  speaking,  that 
churn  is  best  which  produces  the  most  concussion 
and  the  least  friction. 

The  churn. — The  revolving  or  swinging  churns 
without  inside  fixtures  usually  give  the  most  con- 
cussion, the  least  friction,  and  are  easiest  to  clean. 

They  should  be  of  such 
size  as  never  to  be  filled 
over  one.-half  full,  and  bet- 
ter and  easier  work  can 
be  done  if  not  over  one- 
third  full.  Good  work  can 
be  done  in  this  kind  of  a 
churn  with  a  very  small 
amount  of  cream  if  it  is 
not  too  thick.  With  a  bar- 
rel churn,  the  speed  at 
BARREL  CHURN  which  it  is  turned  will 

depend  on  the  thickness  of  the  cream.  The  speed 
should  be  such  as  to  carry  the  cream  to  the  top 
and  allow  it  to  fall  at  each  revolution  of  the  barrel. 
If  run  too  fast,  the  cream  will  adhere  to  the  ends 
and  not  fall  because  of  the  centrifugal  force  devel- 
oped. If  run  too  slow,  the  cream  will  slip  along 
on  the  lower  side  with  very  little  agitation.  The 
right  speed  can  best  be  determined  by  the  person 


46  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

turning  the  churn.  This  may  be  faster  at  first  than 
when  the  cream  thickens  just  before  breaking. 
When  ripe  cream  is  agitated  in  a  tight  churn  it 
should  be  opened  two  or  three  times  after  churning 
begins  to  permit  the  escaping  of  gas  which  has  been 
set  free  by  the  agitation.  As  the  particles  of  fat 


THE  MOTION  THE  SWING  CHURN 
SWING  CHURN  GIVES  ITS  CONTENTS 

gather  together  in  the  process  of  churning  the 
cream  seems  to  become  thicker  and  may  adhere  to 
the  walls  of  the  churn.  This  can  be  prevented  or 
remedied  by  adding  a  little  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  cream  is. 

Preparation  of  the  churn. — Before  placing  cream 
in  a  clean  churn,  the  churn  should  be  scalded  with 
boiling  water.  This  swells  the  wood  and  makes  it 
easier  to  clean.  It  should  next  be  thoroughly 
chilled  with  cold  water  to  prevent  unnecessarily 
warming  the  cream.  If  it  becomes  dry  before  the 
cream  is  ready,  it  should  be  wet.  When  scalding 
a  tight  barrel  or  box  churn,  the  vent  should  be 
opened  after  each  of  the  first  few  revolutions  to 
permit  escape  of  the  air  expanded  by  the  heat. 


CHURNING  47 

Color.--The  general  market  requires  that  butter 
be  as  nearly  the  June  color  as  possible  throughout 
the  year.  If  necessary  to  secure  this,  butter  color 
may  be  used.  The  standard  butter  color  is  harm- 
less and  cannot  be  detected  if  used  only  in  such  an 
amount  as  is  required  for  cream.  The  standard 
coloring  matter  is  prepared  from  the  coating  of  the 
annatto  seed  combined  with  a  neutral  oil.  The  color 
unites  only  with  the  butter  fat,  and  more  color  will 
be  required  with  rich  than  with  thin  cream.  It 
should  be  added  to  the  cream  just  before  starting 
to  churn.  Twelve  to  fifteen  drops  of  color  for  each 
gallon  of  cream  that  will  churn  out  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  butter  will  be  about  right  in  the  fall  and 
winter,  while  less  may  be  required  during  spring 
and  early  summer. 

Stopping. — Churning  should  be  stopped  when  the 
butter  is  gathered  in  granules  about  the  size  of 
wheat  grains  and  floats  freely  on  the  buttermilk. 
Gathering  of  the  butter  into  large  lumps  should  be 
avoided.  The  buttermilk  can  easiest  be  removed 
through  a  hole  provided  for  the  purpose  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  churn.  If  the  butter  separates  from  the 
milk  with  difficulty,  the  addition  of  a  little  cold 
water,  salt  or  brine  will  usually  help.  Churning  is 
not  sufficient  until  the  buttermilk  will  drain  out 
freely.  If  the  butter  comes  very  fine  and  fails  to 
gather  together,  it  may  be  necessary  to  warm  it.  If 
the  cream  is  already  thin,  not  rich  in  fat,  water 
should  not  be  added  to  it,  but  a  vessel  of  hot  water 
may  be  set  into  the  cream  and  both  stirred,  or  the 
cream  removed  from  the  churn  and  submerged  in 


48  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

warm  water  until  the  desired  temperature  is  se- 
cured. 

Straining. — If  the  buttermilk  is  strained  through 
a  cheese-cloth  or  hair  strainer  as  it  runs  from  the 
churn,  it  will  catch  crumbs  of  butter  that  will  be 
lost  otherwise.  If  the  butter  does  not  separate  so 
as  to  strain  readily,  it  is  probable  that  the  churning 
has  not  been  carried  far  enough.  If  the  cream  is 
very  rich,  it  may  be  necessary  to  thin  the  butter- 
milk with  water  in  order  to  draw  it  off  easily. 

Washing. — The  keeping  quality  and  flavor  of  but- 
ter are  much  increased  by  the  thorough  removal  of 
the  curd.  This  can  be  more  easily  and  thoroughly 
done  if  the  churning  is  stopped  when  the  butter  is 
in  granules,  than  if  gathered  into  a  solid  mass. 
Butter  should  be  washed  once  or  twice  with  water 
about  the  temperature  of  the  buttermilk.  The 
washing  is  sufficient  when  the  moisture  left  in  the 
butter  is  clear  and  free  from  milkiness.  Excessive 
washing  may  remove  some  of  the  volatile  oils,  less- 
ening the  delicate  flavor  of  the  butter.  If  the  rinse 
water  is  more  than  three  or  four  degrees  colder 
than  the  churning  temperature,  the  outside  of  the 
butter  granules  will  be  hardened,  while  the  inside 
will  remain  soft.  If  salt  is  added  while  the  butter 
is  in  this  condition,  it  will  not  be  evenly  distributed 
and  mottled  or  streaked  butter  will  result. 

Salting. — The  best  salts  made  for  use  with  butter 
should  be  used.  They  are  not  so  fine,  dissolve  more 
easily,  and  usually  have  less  insoluble  matter  in 
them  than  do  the  table  salts.  The  salt  may  be  added 
in  the  form  of  brine.  This  method  insures  a  mild 


CHURNING  49 

salting,  the  disadvantage  of  which  is  that  not 
enough  salt  can  be  incorporated  to  suit  many  con- 
sumers. Much  more  salt  must  be  used  in  making 
the  brine  than  is  actually  incorporated  in  the  butter, 
thus  causing  a  waste.  The  salt  can  be  most  evenly 
and  easily  added  by  stopping  the  churning  when 
the  butter  is  in  small  granules.  The  salt  may  be 
sprinkled  on  the  butter  while  it  is  yet  in  the  churn, 
then  the  churn  revolved  a  few  times  until  the  butter 
begins  to  pack  together,  after  which  it  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  if  possible  one-half  hour  or  more 
until  the  salt  is  thoroughly  dissolved,  and  then  fin- 
ish the  working. 

The  butter  may  be  removed  from  the  churn  while 
in  the  granular  form,  spread  on  a  worker,  and  the 
salt  sprinkled  over  it,  worked  a  little  to  incorporate 
the  salt,  and  then  allowed  to  stand  until  the  salt  dis- 
solves, after  which  the  working  can  be  finished. 

The  amount  of  salt  used  must  be  determined  by 
the  demand  of  the  market  and  the  brand  of  salt. 
Ordinarily,  one  ounce  of  salt  to  one  pound  of  un- 
worked  butter  will  give  satisfactory  results.  Since 
uniformity  of  product  from  one  churning  to  another 
is  a  very  important  factor,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  rule  for  salting.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to 
weigh  the  butter  and  salt,  use  a  small  definite  meas- 
ure of  salt  for  each  definite  amount  of  cream.  With 
hand-separator  cream,  this  method  will  usually  give 
uniform  results. 

Working. — The  butter  is  worked  to  incorporate 
the  salt,  expel  the  surplus  moisture,  and  gather  the 
butter  into  a  compact  mass.  This  should  be  done 


50  FIRST  LESSONS  IN  DAIRYING 

by  pressure,  avoiding  the  slipping  of  utensils  on  the 
butter,  as  this  makes  it  greasy.  The  working  should 
be  uniform  throughout  all  parts  and  should  be 
stopped  when  the  butter  breaks  with  a  slight  ten- 
dency to  string  out  in  short  pin  points.  If  not 


BUTTER  WORKER 

worked  enough,  it  will  break  off  short  and  crumble ; 
if  overworked,  it  will  lose  its  character  and  become 
greasy.  More  butter  is  injured  by  overworking 
than  by  insufficient  working.  The  finished  butter 
should  be  firm  and  waxy  in  body  and  free  from 
apparent  moisture.  A  lever  butter  worker  of  suit- 
able size  is  one  of  the  important  labor-saving  de- 
vices the  farm  butter  maker  can  have,  making  it 
much  easier  to  work  the  butter,  especially  if  a  little 
hard. 
Package. — While  each  butter  maker  must  study 


CHURNING 


to  please  his  purchasers,  the  standard  pound  print 
2l/2  by  2fys  by  4^  inches  is  gaining  very  rapidly  in 
public  favor.  Prints  of  this  size  pack  nicely  for 
shipping  and  cut  conveniently  for  service  on  the 
table.  The  printer  may  be  carved  so  as  to  leave  a 
design  either  raised  or  sunken  in  the  butter.  If 
well  done  the  first  is  more  attractive,  but  suffers  in 


A 

^ 

U- 

r    - 

-J 

EUREKA  BUTTER  PRINTER 


CARTON  FOR  ONE- POUND 
PRINT  OF  BUTTER 


handling.  The  latter  will  usually  remain  more  dis- 
tinct if  the  butter  is  to  be  handled.  Each  print 
should  be  wrapped  in  first-class  parchment  paper, 
never  in  wax  paper.  If  placed  in  manila  cartons, 
they  will  reach  the  consumer  in  much  better  shape. 
The  carton  and  the  parchment  may  be  printed  to 
indicate  the  maker  of  the  butter,  as  between  two 
lots  of  butter  of  equal  intrinsic  value,  the  one  put 
up  in  the  most  attractive  shape  will  command  the 


52  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

premium  on  a  brisk  market,  while  the  other  will 
remain  unsold  on  a  slow  market. 

Marketing. — Private  customers  who  will  contract 
for  a  regular  supply  at  a  fixed  price  are  usually  the 
highest  priced  customers  available  for  first-class 
dairy  butter.  The  prevailing  express  charges  do 
not  justify  the  shipping  of  small  lots.  The  time 
required  for  the  delivering  of  butter  to  a  number 
of  customers  is  often  worth  more  at  home  than  the 
difference  in  price  secured,  when  compared  with  a 
grocer  with  a  high-class  trade  who  will  contract  for 
a  considerable  amount  at  a  fair  price.  Absolutely 
uniform  quality  from  week  to  week  and  regularity 
of  delivering  are  requisite  if  the  highest  prices  are 
to  be  secured. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Marketing  Milk 

THE  marketing  of  milk  has  developed  from  the 
distribution  by  the  owner  of  the  milk  of  a  small  herd 
to  the  consumers  within  driving  distance,  to  a  busi- 
ness where  it  is  an  industry  in  itself,  with  problems 
peculiar  to  it  and  distinct  from  those  of  the  pro- 
ducer. Some  of  the  large  distributing  concerns  in 
the  cities  number  their  delivery  wagons  by  the 
hundreds,  and  receive  milk  produced  in  several 
States  and  shipped  as  much  as  300  miles  before  it 
reaches  them. 

The  relative  returns  for  milk. — It  is  necessary  to 
take  into  consideration  the  fat  content  of  the  milk 
in  determining  the  returns  from  the  different  meth- 
ods of  marketing.  While  it  is  hardly  practicable  to 
put  it  in  figures,  the  cost  of  making  the  butter,  the 
value  of  skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey,  the  time 
required  for  delivery,  cost  of  bottles,  loss  of  cans 
when  shipping  are  all  factors  that  must  be  counted 
on  and  allowance  made. 

In  the  following  table  100  pounds  of  4  per  cent, 
milk  is  considered  worth  $1.00  or  25  cents  per 
pound  of  fat  and  the  value  of  the  other  product  fig- 
ured on  the  basis  of  the  amount  that  could  be  made 


54  FIRST    LESSONS   IN    DAIRYING 

from  loo  pounds.    In  many  places  this  may  be  too 
low  a  price  for  the  milk,  in  others  too  high. 

100  lb.  of  4%   milk  at  $100  per  cwt  would  be  equivalent  to 
II. 5  gal.  of  milk  at  8.7  cents 

10      lb.  cheese  at  10 

2.4  gal.  of  20%  cream  at  41^    " 

1.9    "      "    25%       "        "    25#     " 
1.3    "      "   40%       "        "    76 

The  markets. — The  markets,  some  or  all  of  which 
may  be  available  to  the  milk  producer,  are  the 
creamery,  cheese  or  condensing  factory,  shipping 
station,  cream  buyer,  retail  milk  delivery  or  family 
butter  making.  The  creamery  relieves  the  home  of 
considerable  hard  work,  and  it  also  offers  the  advan- 
tage of  returning  the  skim  milk  for  use  on  the  farm 
in  the  feeding  of  calves  and  pigs.  Its  value  for  this 
purpose  is  often  overlooked  when  comparing  the 
probable  income  from  the  different  markets.  Many 
creameries  are  now  accepting  hand-separator  cream, 
which  leaves  the  skim  milk  at  the  farm  to  be  fed 
while  yet  warm  with  the  animal  heat.  While  the 
objection  is  made  that  the  creamery  does  not  make 
as  good  butter  from  hand-separator  cream  as  from 
whole  milk,  it  is  not  the  fault  of  the  hand  separator. 
It  is  due  to  the  failure  to  properly  cool  and  care 
for  the  hand-separator  cream,  and  holding  it  too 
long  before  delivering  it  to  the  creamery.  The 
creamery  usually  affords  a  market  throughout  the 
year,  while  a  great  many  cheese  factories  shut  down 
during  the  season  when  the  farmer  should  have  the 
most  time  to  care  for  his  cattle,  and  when  the  dairy 
would  afford  profitable  employment  through  the 


MARKETING    MILK  55 

winter  for  the  labor  that  is  needed  in  the  summer 
time. 

Cheese  factory. — The  returns  for  milk  delivered 
to  the  creamery  and  cheese  factory  have  depended 
largely  on  market  prices  for  butter  and  cheese,  vary- 
ing from  one  season  to  another.  The  whey  has  a 
less  feeding  value  than  skim  milk  because  there  is 
little  or  no  casein  in  it.  When  sweet,  the  sugar  and 
albumen  in  it  make  it  a  desirable  feed  for  hogs 
especially. 

Condensing  factory. — The  condensing  factories 
have  paid  the  highest  prices  and  been  the  most  ex- 
acting buyers  of  milk,  probably  not  exceeded  and  in 
but  few  cases  equaled  by  the  requirements  of  the 
purchaser  for  shipping:  The  process  of  condensing 
seems  to  require  that  milk  should  be  particularly 
free  from  taints  and  faults ;  if  not,  the  loss  is  almost 
complete,  not  merely  a  slight  reduction  in  the  price 
for  which  the  product  can  be  sold.  This  led  to  strict 
requirements  as  to  feed  used,  efficient  cooling,  and 
regular  delivery.  Because  of  these  requirements 
and  the  profits  possible,  prices  paid  by  the  condens- 
ing factories  have  made  the  most  attractive  markets 
the  milk  producer  has  who  is  within  reach  of  one  of 
them. 

Milk  shipping. — The  shipping  of  milk  in  cans  by 
the  individual  has  been  superseded  in  many  sections 
of  the  country  by  the  shipping  station  where  the 
producer  delivers  his  milk  to  be  cooled  and  shipped 
in  refrigerator  cars.  For  the  Boston  market,  milk  is 
handled  almost  entirely  in  two-gallon  cans  filled  and 
loaded  on  to  the  train  by  the  producer.  It  is  claimed 


56  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

that  the  small  cans  permit  the  user  to  thoroughly 
cool  the  milk  with  the  facilities  found  on  the  ordi- 
nary New  England  farm.  It  also  insures  full  cans 
and  only  a  small  amount  to  keep  at  home,  if  a  partly 
filled  can  is  left  over. 

Retailing. — Many  producers  are  so  situated  that 
they  can  deliver  their  own  product  in  the  form  of 
milk,  cream,  or  butter.  In  some  towns  there  is  a 
market  for  a  first-class  article  at  a  price  enough 
above  the  prevailing  price  to  justify  extra  labor 
sufficient  to  produce  a  superior  quality.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  case  of  milk  for  infant  feed- 
ing, as  is  evident  by  the  demand  for  certified  milk. 

Certified  milk. — Certified  milk  is  that  which  has 
been  produced  from  healthy  cows  given  clean  feeds, 
milked  under  cleanly  conditions,  the  milk  immedi- 
ately cooled  and  bottled.  Some  disinterested 
parties,  such  as  a  medical  milk  commission,  make 
regular  examination  of  the  animals,  their  feed,  at- 
tendance, and  the  product,  and  certify  to  the  con- 
suming public  whether  or  not  the  conditions  and 
products  conform  to  the  standards  agreed  on  as 
necessary  for  such  certification.  Milk  as  ordi- 
narily cared  for  sours  in  from  one  to  three  days, 
yet  certified  milk  has  been  frequently  kept  10  to 
14  days,  and  recently  it  has  come  to  the  writer's 
attention  that  certified  milk  was  returned  from 
Europe  by  a  traveler  who  took  his  supply  with 
him.  On  the  thirty-first  day  after  the  milk  was 
drawn  from  the  cow  it  was  still  sweet  and  palatable 
and  commented  on  by  persons  to  whom  submitted, 
as  having  a  good  flavor, 


MARKETING   MILK  57 

Cream. — The  increasing  use  of  ice  cream  makes 
a  market  for  large  quantities  of  sweet  hand-sepa- 
rator cream.  Ice-cream  makers  usually  pay  good 
prices.  In  addition  to  the  cash  returns,  the  skim 
milk  is  left  at  home  to  feed  sweet  and  warm. 

Pasteurization. — The  pasteurization  of  milk  for 
retail  delivery  is  advocated  as  a  means  of  protect- 
ing the  consuming  public  against  evils  associated 
with  improper  care  of  the  milk,  particularly  when 
the  milk  is  not  distributed  by  the  producer.  The 
chief  of  these  evils  are  the  products  of  bacterial 
growth,  especially  of  those  bacteria  associated  with 
the  intestinal  tract.  The  death  rate  of  babies  has 
been  very  materially  lowered  by  improving  the 
quality  of  the  milk  in  respect  to  this  evil.  It  is 
argued  that  since  it  is  impossible  to  guard  all  milk 
against  infection,  the  next  best  thing  is  to  pas- 
teurize it  and  kill  those  bacteria  which  produce 
products  that  may  be  injurious  to  the  delicate  stom- 
ach of  the  infant  or  invalid.  At  best,  it  appears  that 
pasteurization  is  a  makeshift  to  lessen  the  evil  of 
carelessness  and  improper  care  of  the  milk,  lack  of 
cleanliness,  insufficient  cooling,  and  exposure  to 
contamination  with  infectious  diseases. 

Another  evil  which  it  is  sought  to  guard  against 
by  pasteurization  is  the  danger  of  communicating 
tuberculosis  to  man  by  the  use  of  milk  from  in- 
fected animals.  It  would  appear  to  the  writer  that 
the  wisest  plan  is  to  learn  by  testing  the  animals 
whether  or  not  they  have  tuberculosis.  If  they 
have,  the  milk  should  be  pasteurized  and  such  steps 
taken  as  circumstances  permit  to  eradicate  the  dis- 


FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 


ease  from  the  herd,  not  only  because  of  the  danger 
to  the  milk  consumer,  but  because  of  the  loss  and 
increasing  danger  from  allowing  it  to  spread  in  the 
herd. 

There  is  no  better  milk  than  that  from  healthy 
animals,  and  which  is  clean,  cooled  immediately  and 
consumed  fresh. 

Pasteurization  of  milk  makes  it  seem  thinner  or 
less  viscous.  Babcock  has  shown  that  this  is  due  to 
the  destruction  of  the  grouping  or  clusters  of  fat 


A  B 

A — THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  FAT  GLOBULES  IN  THE  MILK 
AFTER  PASTEURIZATION. 

B — THE  NORMAL  GROUPING  OF  FAT  GLOBULES  IN  RAW  MILK. 

globules  in  the  raw  milk.  If  the  heating  is  carried 
much  above  162°  the  cream  does  not  rise  so  as  to 
make  a  plain  cream  line  when  the  milk  is  bottled 
for  delivery. 

Standardization. — The  standardizing  of  milk  or 
cream  means  making  it  contain  a  definite  per  cent, 
of  fat.  This  may  be  done  by  adding  cream  or  rich 
milk  to  that  which  is  low  in  its  fat  content,  or 


MARKETING    MILK 


59 


THE  RELATIVE  AMOUNT  OF  CREAM  ON  MILK  STANDARDIZED  TO 
CONTAIN    DEFINITE    PER    CENTS.    OF    FAT 


diluting  that  which  is  high  with  skim  milk  or  cream 
and  milk  having  lower  per  cent,  of  fat.  Michels 
gives  the  following: 


FORMULAS    FOR    STANDARDIZING 
MILK  AND  CREAM 

Problem  i. — A  producer  contracts  to  deliver  450 
pounds  of  milk  testing  4.0  per  cent.  fat.  His  milk 
as  it  comes  from  the  herd  tests  4.3  per  cent.  How 
many  pounds  skim  milk  must  he  add  to  this  to  re- 
duce it  to  4.0  per  cent.? 


Formula:  X=(A*S\- A, 


in  which 


X  =  number  pounds  skim  milk  to  be  added. 
A  =  number  pounds  original  milk. 
5  =  test  of  original  milk. 
C  =  test  desired. 


60  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

Substituting,  we  get: 

X  =  (45°4XQ4-3)  -  450  =  33-75  pounds. 

Problem  2.  —  Suppose  that  the  450  pounds  of  milk 
tested  4.0  per  cent,  and  it  is  desired  to  raise  it  to 
4.5  per  cent,  by  extracting  skim  milk  ;  the  amount 
of  skim  milk  to  be  extracted  is  determined  from 
the  following  formula  : 


in  which  X  equals  number  of  pounds  of  skim  milk 
to  be  extracted,  and  A,  B,  and  C  are  the  same  as  in 
the  preceding  formula. 
Substituting,  we  get: 

±2)  =  5o  pounds. 

4-5      / 

The  test  of  cream  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in  the 
same  way  by  the  use  of  the  two  preceding  formulas. 

The  following  simple  plan,  which  may  be  used 
with  skim  milk  or  with  milks  or  creams  of  different 
degrees  of  richness,  is  suggested  by  Prof.  R.  A. 
Pearson,  of  Cornell  University. 

Draw  a  square  with  diagonals  as  here  shown. 
At  the  left-hand  corners  place  the  per  cents,  of  fat 
in  the  milk  or  cream  to  be  mixed.  In  the  center 
place  the  per  cent,  desired,  and  at  the  right-hand 
corners  place  the  difference  between  the  center 
figure  and  that  diagonally  opposite.  These  differ- 
ences will  represent  the  number  of  pounds  required 
of  the  material  the  test  of  which  is  horizontally 
opposite. 


MARKETING    MILK 


61 


Example :  How  many  pounds  each  of  30  per  cent, 
cream  and  3.5  per  cent,  milk  are  required  to  make  25 
per  cent,  cream? 

21.5  =  Ibs.  of  30%  cream. 


3-5% 


=  Ibs.  of  3. 5%  milk. 


21.5,  the  difference  between  3.5  and  25,  is  the 
number  of  pounds  of  30  per  cent,  cream  needed ; 
and  5,  the  difference  between  30  and  25,  is  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent,  milk  needed.  There- 
fore, any  given  amount  should  be  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  5  parts  milk  to  21.5  parts  cream. 


MARKET  MILK 

The  essentials. — The  rapidity  with  which  milk 
deteriorates  and  the  impossibility  of  really  making  it 
perfect  after  it  has  been  neglected,  especially  when 
it  is  remembered  that  much  of  the  milk  shipped  does 
not  reach  the  consumer  until  it  is  36  to  48  hours 
old,  make  it  imperative  that  milk  should  have  the 
right  care  from  the  start.  The  essential  features 
for  good  market  milk  are  that  it  shall  be  from 
healthy  cows,  fed  on  feeds  free  from  strong  odors 
and  flavors.  Dust  and  manure,  especially,  with 
their  accompanying  load  of  bacteria,  should  be  kept 
out  of  the  milk,  and  it  should  be  immediately  cooled 


62 


FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 


to  a  temperature  below  50°  to  retard  the  growth  of 
those  bacteria  which  gain  access  in  spite  of  the  pre- 
cautions taken.  The  whole  story  briefly  is:  keep 
the  milk  clean  and  cold. 

Preventing  infection. — The  cows  should  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  milking  stable  long  enough  before 
milking  to  permit  the  dust  to  settle  which  has  been 


THE   RELATIVE   NUMBER   OF   BACTERIA   IN   THE   AIR   OF   WELL   AND 

POORLY  KEPT  STABLES. — ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BULLETIN 

stirred  up  by  their  entering.  Hay  or  bedding 
should  not  be  handled  immediately  before  or  during 
milking.  The  udder,  flanks,  and  adjacent  parts  of 
the  body  should  be  brushed  and,  better,  wiped  with 
a  damp  cloth  or  sponge.  The  clothes  of  the  milker 
should  be  free  from  dust  and  the  milking  done  with 
dry  hands.  Haecker  has  shown  that  the  dampen- 
ing of  the  hair  on  and  near  the  udder  with  clean 
water  is  as  efficient  in  reducing  the  number  of  bac- 
teria in  the  milk  as  the  use  of  water  with  a  dis- 
infectant in  it  or  the  use  of  vaseline. 


MARKETING    MILK 


UNCLEAN  FLANKS— A  COMMON  SOURCE  OF  MILK  CONTAMINATION. 


A— RELATIVE  NUMBER  OF  BACTERIA  FALLING  FROM  AN  APPARENTLY 
CLEAN  UNWASHED  UDDER.  AND  B,  FROM  A  WASHED  UDDER 


U'NWERS  | 


64  FIRST   LESSONS   IN   DAIRYING 

Eraser  reports  experiments  in  which  90  times  as 
much  dirt  fell  from  a  muddy  udder,  and  18  times  as 


A  B 

A — RELATIVE  AMOUNT  OF  DIRT  FALLING  FROM  A  MUDDY,  UN- 
WASHED UDDER,  I,  WAS  NINETY  TIMES  AS  GREAT  AS  FROM 
THE  SAME  UDDER  WASHED,  2  ;  WHEN  ONLY  SLIGHTLY  SOILED, 
B,  EIGHTEEN  TIMES  AS  MUCH,  I,  AS  AFTER  WASHING,  2. 

much  from  a  slightly  soiled  udder  as  from  a  clean 
washed  udder. 

The  first  streams  of  milk  should  be  rejected  from 
each  teat,  as  they  are  heavily  loaded  with  bacteria 
which  have  gained  an  entrance  and  found  there 
favorable  conditions  for  rapid  growth. 

A  milk  pail  with  a  small  opening  will  very 
materially  reduce  the  amount  of  dirt  falling  into 
it  during  the  milking  operation.  An  opening 


SMALL  OPENING  MILK  PAILS  ARE  NOW  BEING  USED  QUITE  EX- 
TENSIVELY. A  PAIL  WITH  VISOR  TO  REDUCE  AREA  OF  HORI- 
ZONTAL OPENING  AND  MANNER  OF  PROTECTING  SAME  WITH 
PAPER  IS  USED  IN  THE  DAIRY  DEPARTMENT  AT  CORNELL  UNI- 
VERSITY, AS  SHOWN  IN  THE  TWO  FIGURES  AT  THE  RIGHT. 


MARKETING    MILK 


6  inches  in  diameter  gives  28  square  inches  of 
surface  open  to  catch  the  dirt,  while  a  12-inch  pail, 
a  very  common  size,  though  it  is  only  twice  as  wide 

across,  has  four  times  as 
large  an  opening  e  x  - 
posed  for  the  collection 
of  falling  dirt,  having 
113  square  inches. 

The     strainer     pail, 
COMBINED  STRAINER  AND  SMALL   which  is  entirely  covered 
OPENING  MILK  PAIL.    DR.        except     the     strainer 
NORTH'S  STYLE.  ;          . 

through  which  the  milk 

is  admitted,  serves  to  materially  reduce  the  infection. 
In  some  cases  the  fine  wire  strainer  is  used;  in 
others  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton  is  placed  between 


GUERLER    MILK    PAIL 

two  wire  strainers  of  coarse  mesh;  and  in  still 
others  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  cheese  cloth  are 
used.  The  objection  to  the  strainer  of  any  kind  is 
that  chunks  of  foreign  material  falling  on  the 
strainer  are  pounded  to  pieces  by  the  streams  of 


66  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

milk  striking  them,  which  thoroughly  distributes 
their  load  of  bacteria  and  soluble  matter  through 
the  milk,  whereas,  with  the  small  opening  and  no 
strainer,  foreign  matter  getting  into  the  pail  floats 
on  the  foam  or  settles  to  the  bottom,  to  be  strained 
out  on  emptying  the  pail,  leaving  less  in  the  milk 
than  would  be  the  case  with  the  strainer  pail.  Not- 
withstanding these  objections,  the  strainer  pail  is 
used  by  some  of  the  most  successful  producers  of 
certified  milk ;  while  others,  equally  successful,  use 
the  small  opening  and  no  strainer.  There  is  no 
reason  why  the  small  opening  pail  without  strainers 

cannot  be  used  on 
the  ordinary  farm,  re- 
ducing materially  the 
amount  of  dirt  getting 
into  the  milk  and 
avoiding  the  incon- 

MILK  STRAINER  WITH  TWO  THICK-       VCnienCC     of     the 
NESSES    OF    CHEESE    CLOTH  cfrai'ti^r 

TOP   AND   BOTTOM 

One     of     the     best 

strainers  for  milk  is  made  with  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  cheese  cloth,  providing  the  cloth  is  thor- 
oughly washed,  each  time  it  is  used,  with  lukewarm 
water,  scalded  with  boiling  water,  and  hung  in  the 
sunshine  free  from  dust.  Because  of  the  ease  with 
which  these  strainer  cloths  may  be  neglected,  some 
large  buyers  of  milk  require  their  patrons  to  use 
only  fine-mesh  wire  strainers. 

Cooling. — Having  excluded  as  much  dirt  and  bac- 
teria as  possible,  it  is  important  that  the  milk  be 
cooled  immediately  to  50°  or  as  much  lower  as  cir- 


MARKETING    MILK 


67 


o 


THE  PROGENY  OF  ONE  BACTERIUM,  a,  IN  TWELVE  HOURS  IN   MILK, 
b,    PROPERLY   COOLED,    AND   C,    NOT   COOLED 


STAR  COOLER 


68 


FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 


cumstances  permit.  Doctor  Conn  has  shown  that  at 
a  temperature  of  50°  bacteria  multiplied  five  times 
in  24  hours,  while  at  70°  they  multiplied  750  times.* 
Cooling  may  be  done  by  surrounding  the  can  of 
milk  with  cold  water  or  running  it  over  a  cooler 
through  which  cold  water  is  flowing.  Most  coolers 
are  also  aerators,  exposing  the  milk  to  air.  If  this 
aeration  is  done  where  the  air  is  free  from  dust  and 


CHAMPION    MILK    COOLER    AND 
AERATOR 


CHAMPION  COOLER  AND  AERATOR, 

SHOWING  INFLOW  AND  OVERFLOW 

FOR  RUNNING  WATER 


odors,  it  is  usually  an  advantage,  permitting  as  it 
does  the  escape  of  gases  more  or  less  commonly 
present  in  the  milk.  It  has  been  pretty  conclusively 
shown  that  much  of  the  so-called  "cowy  odor"  is 
due  to  manure  in  the  milk. 

Care  of  hand-separator  cream. — The  marketing  of 
the  dairy  product  of  the  farm  as  cream  is  one  of 
the  most  convenient  methods  available,  involving 

*See  "Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology,"  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Conn, 
published  by  Orange  Judd  Company,  1907. 


MARKETING   MILK  69 

the  minimum  labor  and  usually  bringing  fair  re- 
turns. The  perfection  of  the  paper,  non-returnable 
package  makes  possible  the  building  up  of  a  trade 
for  cream  among  retail  consumers,  without  the  an- 
noying labor  connected  with  the  handling  of  glass 
bottles,  the  distribution  being  made  by  grocers  or 
milkmen  in  connection  with  their  regular  business. 
The  same  care  of  milk  for  this  purpose  is  required 
as  where  milk  is  shipped  or  retailed. 

Where  hand-separator  cream  is  delivered  to  the 
creamery  better  care  is  required  than  is  often  given 
it.  Cream  should  be  delivered  at  least  every  other 
day,  milk  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
barn,  cream  should  be  cooled  immediately  after 
separating,  warm  cream  should  not  be  mixed  with 
cold  cream,  and  the  cream  should  be  kept  sweet 
until  delivered.  Unless  the  purchaser  requires  the 
thin  cream,  the  richer  it  is,  up  to  45  per  cent,  of  fat, 
the  better  it  is  and  the  less  serum  there  is  to  de- 
teriorate. It  is  the  sugar  of  the  serum  which  most 
rapidly  undergoes  the  change.  The  separator  should 
be  washed  after  each  using.  Careful  experiments 
show  that  no  amount  of  rinsing  by  running  warm 
water  through  it  is  a  substitute  for  thorough  wash- 
ing with  a  brush. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Equipment 

The  dairy  room. — The  making  of  butter  as  a 
regular  part  of  the  farm  business,  or  the  handling 
of  the  milk  of  a  number  of  cows,  makes  it  desirable 
that  some  room  should  be  set  apart  for  thi-s 
work — a  room  where  there  will  be  freedom  from 
odors  of  cooking,  washing,  stable  odors  and  any- 
thing that  may  impair  the  quality  of  the  product. 
The  room  should  have  good  light,  ventilation,  a 
tight  smooth  floor  and  so  located  as  not  to  receive 
the  dust  from  passing  teams.  In  addition  to  the 
necessary  tinware  and  apparatus  there  should  be  a 
vat  or  small  tank  into  which  cans  of  milk  or  cream 
may  be  placed,  surrounded  with  water  to  cool  it. 
If  butter  is  made  there  should  be  a  refrigerator  into 
which  nothing  is  put  but  dairy  products.  A  table 
of  convenient  height  and  shelving  for  the  tinware 
should  be  provided.  Page  71  shows  a  convenient 
arrangement  of  stationary  sinks  and  drain  boards. 
If  steam  and  running  water  are  not  available  the 
sinks  can  be  used,  as  the  round  bottom  makes  possi- 
ble the  use  of  the  least  amount  of  water.  The  sinks 
can  be  made  of  galvanized  iron, .should  be  18  inches 
wide,  12  inches  deep,  and  30  inches  long.  If  lo-gallon 
milk  cans  are  to  be  washed  in  them  they  should  be 
six  inches  longer.  The  wash  water  with  alkali  in 
it  is  placed  in  the  right-hand  one,  and  in  the  left 


EQUIPMENT 


WASH   SINKS  AND  DRAIN  BOARDS 


CONTAMINATION   OF  WELL  WATER   BY  SURFACE  DRAINAGE 


72  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

clean  hot  water  for  rinsing,  after  which  the  vessels 
are  turned  over  the  steam  jet  if  available.  In  the 
absence  of  steam  a  wood-burning  stove  or  water 
heater  is  convenient,  while  in  some  places  an  oil  or 
gasoline  stove  will  answer.  These  should  be  kept 
clean  to  avoid  odors. 

The  water  supply. — Water  that  looks  clean  is  not 
necessarily  free  from  contamination  by  surface 
drainage,  as  suggested  in  page  71. 

Washing  utensils. — The  utensils  that  have 
been  in  contact  with  milk  products  should  first  be 
rinsed  with  cold,  or  better  with  lukewarm,  water. 
This  removes  the  casein,  which  might  be  cooked  on 
if  plunged  into  hot  water  immediately,  or  the 
crumbs  of  butter.  After  rinsing,  wash  thoroughly  in 
warm  water.  For  tinware,  the  addition  of  an  alka- 
line washing  powder  free  from  fat  or  grease  is 
usually  desirable.  There  are  several  good  washing 
powders  made  for  this  purpose.  Brushes  are  much 
to  be  preferred  to  a  cloth,  because  they  get  into  the 
corners  and  are  much  easier  to  keep  clean.  Brushes 
of  many  shapes  and  sizes  are  available.  Next  rinse 
with  clean  water  and  scald  with  boiling  water  or 
live  steam,  and  allow  to  dry  without  wiping. 
Wiping  with  a  towel,  though  it  be  commonly  called 
a  clean  one,  adds  about  300  to  3,000  times  as  many 
bacteria  to  the  surface  of  the  utensils  as  would  be 
there  if  thoroughly  scalded  and  not  wiped.  If  possi- 
ble to  expose  tinware  to  the  sun,  without  also  ex- 
posing to  dust,  it  is  a  desirable  practice,  as  the  sun- 
shine is  an  excellent  germicide. 

The  ice  house. — Every  farm,  and  especially  if  pro- 


EQUIPMENT  73 

ducing  milk  for  market  in  some  form,  should  have, 
if  at  all  possible,  a  supply  of  ice.  The  well-built 
ice  house  is  desirable,  but  not  absolutely  necessary. 
Studding  may  be  set  up  and  the  top  secured  by 
horizontal  ties,  the  ice  stacked  up  so  as  to  leave  15 
or  18  inches  between  it  and  the  studding,  and  this 
space  well  filled  with  sawdust.  Boards  should  be 
placed  against  the  studs,  and  sawdust  added  as  the 
ice  is  stacked;  then  thoroughly  cover  the  top  with 
sawdust.  A  temporary  roof  may  be  put  over  this. 
An  essential  feature  for  an  ice  house  is  thorough 
drainage  of  the  bottom.  For  a  cheap  house  referred 
to  above,  the  ice  can  be  piled  on  ordinary  fence  rails, 
so  located  that  the  water  can  drain  away;  but  it 
must  have  thorough  protection  around  and  over  the 
ice.  The  sides  may  be  a  double  wall,  filled  with 
sawdust,  or  the  temporary  structure  referred  to 
above.  In  any  event,  the  roof  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  permit  circulation  of  air  over  the  sawdust. 


CHAPTER   IX 

BabcocK  Test 

As  previously  indicated,  this  test  is  to  determine 
the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  milk  products.  Every  man 
who  keeps  cows  for  profit  and  markets  his  product 
on  the  basis  of  its  butter- fat  value  should  have  a 
Babcock  test  and  know  how  much  each  cow  is  pro- 
ducing annually.  If  he  is  selling  cream,  he  should 
know  what  per  cent,  of  fat  it  contains,  and  whether 
the  separator  has  removed  all  of  the  fat  from  the 
skim  milk,  and,  if  churning,  how  much  fat  is  being 
lost  in  the  buttermilk.  Well-made  testers,  which 
do  not  expose  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  can  be  bought 
for  a  price  which  makes  them  a  profitable  invest- 
ment if  used  properly.  Since  every  owner  of  a 
Babcock  test  should  have  one  of  the  two  good  books 
on  the  subject,  but  brief  mention  will  be  made  here. 

The  principle. — The  principle  of  the  Babcock  test 
is  that  the  solids  of  milk,  other  than  fat,  are  so 
broken  up  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  that  the 
fat  is  set  free  and  can  readily  be  separated  by  cen- 
trifugal force  and  collected  in  the  neck  of  a  bottle, 
so  graduated  as  to  show  by  direct  reading  the  per 
cent,  of  the  milk  which  is  fat. 

The  sample. — Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
sample  taken  for  testing  represents  the  entire  lot  of 
milk.  The  milk  should  be  stirred  or,  better,  poured 
from  one  vessel  to  another  before  taking  the  sample. 


OFTHE 

UNIVERSITY 

c. . 


BABCOCK  TEST 


75 


I,  INEXPENSIVE  BABCOCK  TESTER;  2,  ACID  DIPPER;  3,  ACID 
MEASURE;  4,  PIPETTE;  5,  WHOLE  MILK  TEST  BOTTLE; 
6,  DOUBLE  BORE  SKIM-MILK  TEST  BOTTLE  J  7,  AN  INCLOSED 

IRON    FRAME   BABCOCK  TESTER 


76  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

When  testing  individual  cow's  milk  it  is  necessary 
that  the  milking  be  completed  and  the  entire  yield 
of  milk  mixed  before  sampling.  The  milk  from  the 
several  quarters  of  the  udder  may  differ  in  the  per 
cent,  of  fat.  The  first  milk  drawn  may  test  only 
.8  per  cent,  fat,  and  the  last  8  to  12  per  cent. 

The  acid. — The  acid  used  is  commercial  sulphuric, 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  to  1.83.  If  the  acid 
is  too  weak,  more  must  be  used ;  if  too  strong,  less 
may  be  used.  Because  of  the  power  to  absorb  mois- 
ture from  the  air,  the  bottle  should  be  kept  tightly 
stoppered  unless  the  acid  is  too  strong  and  it  is 
desired  to  thus  weaken  it.  When  adding  to  the 
sample,  the  test  bottle  should  be  so  slanted  as  to 
allow  the  acid  to  run  down  the  side  of  the  bottle. 
The  acid  and  milk  should  be  mixed  immediately, 
since  standing  allows  the  milk  next  to  the  acid  to 
become  burned. 

Whirling. — After  the  acid  and  milk  are  mixed  the 
bottle  should  be  whirled  in  the  centrifuge  for  five 
minutes ;  stopped  and  water  added  up  to  the  neck  of 
the  bottle ;  whirled  one  minute  and  filled  to  the  8 
or  9  per  cent,  mark,  and  whirled  one  more  minute. 
The  water  used  in  hand  testers  should  be  boiling 
hot,  and  should  be  either  rain  water  or  well  water 
that  is  free  from  lime  or  other  foreign  material.  It 
can  best  be  added  with  a  narrow-lipped  or  spouted 
cup,  or  with  the  pipette.  Care  must  be  used  not  to 
burn  the  mouth  when  using  the  pipette. 

Reading. — This  should  be  done  with  the  bottles 
at  a  temperature  of  from  120°  to  140°.  If  necessary, 
the  bottles  can  be  placed  in  a  bath  of  warm  water 


BABCOCK  TEST  77 

for  a  few  minutes  before  reading.  The  reading 
should  be  done  from  the  lowest  point  of  the  fat 
column  to  the  highest  point  of  the  upper  curve. 

Skim  milk. — In  testing  skim  milk,  slightly  more 
acid  and  a  little  more  speed  should  be  used. 

Cream. — In  testing  cream,  where  accurate  tests 
are  desired,  the  cream  should  be  weighed  on  sensi- 
tive balances,  rather  than  measured  with  the  pipette, 
because  of  the  different  weight  of  creams  of  differ- 
ent fat  content  and  a  variable  amount  of  cream 
sticking  to  the  pipette.  Slightly  less  acid  is  required 
for  cream,  and  the  mixture  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  five  or  ten  minutes  before  placing  in  the  cen- 
trifuge, in  order  to  allow  better  action  of  the  acid. 


CHAPTER  X 

Butter  Judging  and  Grading 

BUTTER  varies  greatly  in  those  qualities  which 
please  the  consumer.  As  yet  no  exact  method  has 
been  devised  for  measuring  those  qualities ;  there- 
fore they  remain  a  matter  of  individual  judgment 
influenced  by  those  variations  in  physical  condition 
to  which  all  persons  are  more  or  less  subject.  For 
the  purpose  of  education  and  commercial  con- 
venience, the  qualities  of  butter  are  grouped  under 
five  heads,  to  which  a  mathematical  value  is  assigned 
according  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  re- 
spective groups.  This  constitutes  the  score  card 
which  is  generally  used  by  the  State  and  national 
dairy  associations  and  in  the  large  butter  markets. 

SCORE  CARD 

No 

Perfect  Score                  Remarks 

Flavor    45         

Body    25         

Color    15         

Salt   10         

Style  5 


Total  loo 

Date Scored  by 


For  the  purpose  of  examining  butter  in  the  market 
an  instrument  called  a  trier  is  used.  If  a  tube  6  to  15 
inches  in  length  was  split  in  two  equal  parts  and  a 


BUTTER  JUDGING  AND  GRADING  79 

handle  attached  to  one  of  these  halves,  it  would 
be  a  crude  likeness  of  the  butter  trier.  By 
plunging  the  trier  into  a  package  of  butter  and 
giving  it  a  one-half  turn,  the  plug  is  withdrawn  for 
examination.  The  body  or  texture  is  first  noted  be- 
fore it  is  softened  by  the  temperature  of  the  room. 


BUTTER  TRIER 

Body. — The  body  should  be  firm  and  waxy  to 
the  pressure  of  the  thumb,  free  from  surplus  mois- 
ture, the  brine  clear  (not  milky),  and  it  should  not 
be  greasy,  tallowy,  spongy,  or  sticky. 

Flavor. — The  flavor  should  be  clean,  mild,  rich, 
and  creamy,  with  a  mild,  pleasant  aroma.  Some  of 
the  commoner  faults  are  as  follows : 

Flat,  lacking  in  flavor,  which  is  due  usually  to  in- 
sufficient development  of  the  lactic  acid  in  ripening. 

Rancid,  that  is,  an  undesirable,  strong  flavor  com- 
monly caused  by  milk  or  cream  being  old  or  over  ripe 
before  churning. 

Unclean. — This  may  be  due  to  stable  contamination 
or  unclean  utensils. 

Weedy. — Flavors  that  are  suggestive  of  weeds 
that  are  likely  to  be  found  in  the  pasture. 

Sour — Usually  caused  by  insufficient  removal  of  the 
buttermilk  in  working,  and  sometimes  caused  by  very 
thin  cream. 

Feverish. — A  comparatively  new  term  describing  a 
sickish  flavor  from  cows  in  an  unhealthy  condition, 
such  as  sexual  excitement  or  diarrhoea. 


80  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

Stable  flavor. — Unclean  conditions  surrounding  the 
milk,  such  as  cows  not  properly  cleaned  or  milk  ex- 
posed to  the  unventilated  air  of  stables. 

Color. — The  commonest  fault  in  the  matter  of 
color  is  unevenness,  that  is,  streaked  or  mottled,  due 
usually  to  uneven  distribution  of  the  salt  or  by  the 
use  of  too  cold  rinse  water.  It  may  be  too  high  or 
too  low  in  color ;  this  is  usually  a  matter  of  mar- 
kets. If  too  much  vegetable  color  is  used,  it  may 
be  detected  by  the  critical  taster. 

Salt. — The  degree  of  saltiness  is  largely  a  matter 
of  market  requirements,  and  is,  therefore,  variable. 
It  is  important  that  the  salt  be  evenly  distributed 
and  thoroughly  dissolved. 

Style. — Whatever  the  shape  of  the  package,  it 
should  be  neat,  clean,  and  free  from  finger  marks. 
The  solid  packed  packages  should  be  filled  full,  cut 
off  with  a  wire,  string,  or  straight-edge,  and  covered 
with  a  parchment  circle.  Prints  should  have 
straight,  sharp  edges,  and  if  marked  with  monogram 
or  other  design  it  should  be  clear  and  sharp.  The 
wrappers  should  be  put  on  straight  and  folded 
smooth. 

The  following  are  the  grades  and  classifications 
of  butter  in  the  New  York  market,  as  outlined  by 
the  New  York  Mercantile  Exchange : 

CLASSIFICATION 

Creamery    butter. — Butter  offered     under     this 

classification  shall  have  been  made  in  a  creamery 

from  cream  obtained   by  the  separator  system  or 
gathered  cream. 


BUTTER  JUDGING  AND  GRADING  8l 

Imitation  creamery  butter. — Butter  offered  under 
this  classification  shall  have  been  churned  by  the 
dairyman,  collected  in  its  unsalted,  unworked  condi- 
tion, and  worked,  salted,  and  packed  by  the  dealer 
and  shipped. 

Dairy  butter. — Butter  offered  under  this  classifica- 
tion shall  be  such  as  is  made,  salted,  and  packed  by 
the  dairyman,  and  offered  in  its  original  package. 

Factory  butter. — Butter  offered  under  this  classi- 
fication shall  have  been  collected  in  rolls,  lumps,  or 
in  whole  packages,  and  reworked  by  the  dealer  or 
shipper. 

Renovated  butter. — Butter  offered  under  this 
classification  shall  be  made  by  taking  pure  butter 
and  melting  the  same,  and  rechurning  with  fresh 
milk,  cream,  or  skim  milk,  or  other  equivalent 
process. 

Grease. — This  shall  consist  of  all  grades  of  butter 
below  Fourths  free  from  adulteration. 

Known  marks. — This  shall  comprise  such  butter 
as  is  known  to  the  trade  under  some  particular  mark 
or  designation,  and  must  grade  as  Extras,  if  cream- 
ery, and  Firsts,  if  reworked  butter,  in  the  season 
in  which  it  is  offered,  unless  otherwise  specified. 
Known  marks  to  be  offered  under  the  call  must  pre- 
viously have  been  registered  in  a  book  kept  by  the 
superintendent  for  that  purpose. 

Grades  of  butter  must  conform  to  all  the  follow- 
ing requirements,  and  shall  not  be  determined  by 
the  score  alone : 

EXTRAS  shall  be  composed  of  the  highest  grades  of 
butter  made  in  the  season  when  offered,  under  the 


82  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

different  classifications;  90  per  cent,  shall  be  up  to 
the  following  standard,  the  balance  shall  not  grade 
below  Firsts : 

Flavor.— Must  be  fine,  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh,  if  of 
current  make,  and  fine,  sweet,  and  clean  if  held. 

Body. — Must  be  firm,  smooth,  and  uniform. 

Color. — A  light  straw  shade,  even  and  uniform. 

Salt. — Medium  salted. 

Package. — Good,  uniform,  and  clean. 

Score. — Shall  average  93  points  or  higher. 

FIRST  shall  be  a  grade  just  below  extras,  and  must 
be  fine  butter  for  the  season  when  made  and  offered, 
under  the  different  classifications,  and  up  to  the  fol- 
lowing standard : 

Flavor. — Must  be  good,  sweet,  clean,  and  fresh,  if  of 
current  make,  and  good,  clean,  and  sweet  if  held. 

Botfy. — Good  and  uniform. 

Color. — Reasonably  uniform;  neither  too  high  nor 
too  light. 

Salt. — Medium  salted. 

Packages. — Good  and  uniform. 

Score. — Shall  average  87  points  or  higher. 

SECONDS  shall  be  graded  just  below  Firsts,  and  must 
be  good  for  the  season  when  offered,  under  the  differ- 
ent classifications,  and  up  to  the  following  standard: 

Flavor. — Must  be  reasonably  good  and  sweet. 

Body. — If  creamery  or  dairy,  must  be  solid  boring. 
If  factory  or  renovated,  must  be  90  per  cent,  solid 
boring. 

Color. — Fairly  uniform. 

Salt. — May  be  high,  medium,  or  light  salted. 

Package. — Good  and  uniform. 


BUTTER  JUDGING  AND  GRADING  83 

Score. — Shall  average  80  points  or  higher. 

THIRDS  shall  be  graded  just  below  Seconds. 

Flavor. — Must  be  reasonably  good;  may  be  strong 
on  tops  and  sides. 

Body. — Fair  boring,  if  creamery  or  dairy,  and  at 
least  50  per  cent,  boring  a  full  trier  if  factory  or 
renovated. 

Color. — May  be  irregular. 

Salt. — High,  light,  or  irregular. 

Package. — Fairly  uniform. 

Score. — Shall  average  75  points  or  higher. 

FOURTHS  shall  be  graded  just  below  Thirds,  and 
may  consist  of  promiscuous  lots. 

Flavor. — May  be  off-flavored  and  strong  on  tops 
and  sides. 

Body. — Not  required  to  draw  a  full  trier. 

Color. — May  be  irregular. 

Salt. — High,  light,  or  irregular. 

Package. — Any  kind  of  package  mentioned  at  time 
of  sale. 


CHAPTER  XI 
Historical 

THERE  has  been  a  great  evolution  in  the  business 
of  preparing  and  handling  dairy  products  for  man's 
use  since  "Abraham  put  before  his  guests  butter, 
milk,  and  a  dressed  calf"  and  "Jesse  sent  David  to 
the  camp  of  the  army  of  Israel  with  ten  small 
cheese."  It  is  a  far  step  from  the  goatskin  filled  with 
milk,  hung  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  tied  to  the 
tail  of  a  horse  for  a  churn,  to  the  modern  use  of  the 
centrifugal  separator,  ripening  of  cream  with  pure 
cultures  of  bacteria,  and  the  use  of  a  churn  that  also 
works  the  butter  before  it  is  removed ;  while  the 
large  city  user  of  modified,  certified,  or  pasteurized 
milk  has  forgotten,  if  he  ever  knew,  that  in  primi- 
tive times  the  milch  animal  was  brought  to  the  door 
of  the  purchaser  to  deliver  the  freshly  drawn  milk, 
and  he  is  probably  unconscious  of  the  fact  that  his 
morning  supply  of  milk  may  have  crossed  three 
States  and  taken  two  days  to  reach  him  "still  fresh," 
or  perchance  he  takes  it  from  a  tin  can  which  was 
filled  a  year  or  more  ago  half  way  across  the  conti- 
nent in  a  modern  condensing  establishment.  Some 
of  the  conspicuous  milestones  in  this  march  of 
progress  are  the  following: 

In  1810,  cheese  made  on  the  Western  Reserve  in 
Northeastern  Ohio  was  carted  to  Pittsburg  for 
barter. 


HISTORICAL  85 

In  1820,  Harvey  Baldwin  started  for  New  Orleans 
with  five  tons  of  cheese,  made  near  Aurora, 
Ohio,  but  sold  it  at  Wheeling,  Cincinnati,  and 
Louisville. 

In  1835,  Charles  R.  Harmon  bought  cheese  five 
days  from  the  hoop  and  took  it  to  Fort  Dearborn 
(now  Chicago),  but,  being  unable  to  sell  it  there, 
took  it  to  Milwaukee. 

The  modern  cheese  factory  system  started  in  1851, 
when  Jesse  Williams  and  his  sons,  in  Oneida 
County,  N.  Y.,  brought  the  milk  from  their  several 
farms  together  to  be  made  into  cheese.  Previous 
to  this  all  cheese  was  made  on  the  farms,  and  butter 
continued  to  be  so  made  until  the  starting  of  the 
creamery  in  1870.  The  cream  was  gathered  by 
haulers  and  brought  to  the  creamery  to  be  churned, 
and  still  is  in  some  parts  of  New  England.  The 
milk  was  set  in  deep  cans  of  such  diameter  that 
one  inch  in  depth  of  cream  was  expected  to  make 
one  pound  of  butter.  These  were  called  gauges,  and 
the  cream  was  measured  by  the  hauler  and  paid  for 
by  the  gauge.  With  the  coming  of  the  factory  cen- 
trifugal separator  in  the  early  '8os  the  whole  milk 
was  brought  to  the  factory  for  separation  and  the 
skim  milk  returned  to  the  patrons. 

Thoroughness  of  separation,  the  reduced  loss  of 
butter  fat,  together  with  the  improved  quality  of 
the  butter,  which  could  be  made  by  separating  the 
cream  mechanically  instead  of  allowing  it  to  stand 
and  rise,  justified  the  time  and  labor  required  in 
hauling  the  milk  to  the  factory  and  the  skim  milk 
home. 


86         .  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

The  development  of  the  factory  system  brought 
an  appreciation  of  the  variation  in  value  of  different 
milks  both  for  butter  and  cheese  making.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  ease  and  prevalence  of  adulteration 
by  skimming  and  watering,  made  the  need  of  a 
test  for  butter  fat  imperative. 

The  establishment  of  the  experiment  stations  in 
each  State  and  the  research  work  made  possible  by 
the  passage  of  the  Hatch  Act  in  1887  stimulated  ex- 
perimental workers  to  devise  a  test  that  would  show 
accurately  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk,  a  test  that 
was  sufficiently  inexpensive  to  permit  its  regular  use 
in  the  factory  and  simple  enough  that  the  average 
butter  maker  could  use  it.  With  the  chemists  of 
several  experiment  stations  working  on  the  problem, 
it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station,  in  1890,  to  perfect  a 
test  that  met  the  requirements.  So  thoroughly  was 
his  work  done  that  no  modification  in  the  essential 
features  have  been  made  since.  Its  accuracy  has 
been  confirmed  by  many  chemists  in  America  and 
Europe.  So  simple  and  accurate  is  it  that  it  is 
almost  universally  used  for  the  determination  of  the 
per  cent,  of  fat  in  milk,  and  milk  and  cream  are  now 
commonly  paid  for  on  the  basis  of  their  fat  content 
by  creameries  and  cheese  factories. 

According  to  J.  D.  Frederiksen  the  first  sugges- 
tion to  employ  centrifugal  force  for  the  separation  of 
cream  £rom  the  skim  milk  was  made  in  Germany  by 
Professor  Fuchs,  and  was  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
its  richness. 

About  1870  Rev.  H.  F.  Bond,  of  Massachusetts, 


HISTORICAL  87 

succeeded  in  separating  cream  in  two  glass  jars  at- 
tached to  a  spindle  making  200  revolutions  a  minute. 
A   Danish   veterinarian   in    1873,   suspended   two 
pails  on  a  stick  revolving  horizontally  400  revolu- 
tions a  minute,  and  secured  the  separation  of  cream. 
The  next  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  separator  was 

the  vertical  drum  or  cyl- 
inder into  which  milk  was 
put  and  after  revolving 
till  separation  was  secured 
"  valves  in  the  periphery 
of  the  drum  were  opened 
and  the  skim  milk  allowed 
to  escape  while  in  motion, 

FIRST  CENTRIFUGAL  SEPARATOR 

then  closed  and  the  drum 

stopped  and  the  cream  removed  and  a  new  supply 
of  milk  put  in."  This  was  in  1876.  In  another  ma- 
chine of  this  type  holding  220  pounds  of  milk,  it 
took  ten  minutes  to  attain  a  speed  of  800  to 
900  revolutions,  and  24  to  33  minutes  to  come  to  a 
stop,  when  the  skim  milk  was  siphoned  from  under 
the  cream,  then  the  cream  drawn  through  a  valve 
in  the  bottom  of  the  drum. 

The  third  stage  in  the  development  soon  followed. 
In  1877  and  ^78  appeared  machines  into  which  the 
milk  was  fed  continuously  and  the  skim  milk  and 
cream  was  taken  out  similarly. 

In  1879  m  Denmark  the  Danish  Weston  and  in 
Sweden  the  De  Laval  Separators  were  developed 
and  marked  the  first  great  advance  in  the  perfection 
of  a  commercially  successful  machine. 

In  1890  De  Laval  discovered  that  certain  internal 


88  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

devices  increase  the  efficiency  and  capacity  of  the 
separator.  Soon  after  this  the  hand  power  sep- 
arator was  put  on  the  market.  Its  most  rapid  intro- 
duction was  in  the  Middle  West  in  the  nineties. 

The  successful  introduction  of  the  hand-power 
centrifugal  separator  about  1894,  and  rapidly  since 
1898,  with  the  possibility  of  separating  milk  on  the 
farm,  has  brought  back  in  many  sections  the  gath- 
ered cream  system  of  factory  butter  making. 

Along  with  the  establishment  of  the  cooperative 
creameries,  in  which  practically  all  who  supplied 
milk  were  part  owners,  and  where  the  income  from 
the  sale  of  butter  was  divided  proportionately  after 
deducting  the  operating  expenses,  has  developed  in 
the  Middle  West  the  centralizing  creamery  with  its 
hundreds  of  skimming  stations  scattered  in  sparsely 
settled  sections  and  often  bringing  the  cream  from 
farms  in  two  or  three  States,  three  or  four  hundred 
miles  daily,  to  the  central  plant  for  manufacture. 
At  first  the  great  centralizing  plants,  in  their 
eagerness  for  business,  accepted  cream  of  very 
inferior  quality  and  tried  with  the  aid  of  science 
to  make  first-class  butter  from  it.  This  idea  has 
had  to  give  way  to  the  truth  that  a  perfect  article 
cannot  be  made  from  an  imperfect  one,  and  a  cam- 
paign of  education  is  taking  the  place  of  the  chemist 
and  his  chemicals.  The  odium  which  has  rested  on 
hand-separated  creamery  butter  will  be  removed 
when  hand-separator  creamery  patrons  wash  their 
separators  every  time  they  are  used,  cool  their  cream 
and  deliver  it  to  the  creamery  sweet  and  clean. 

These   historical   notes   would   not   be    complete 


HISTORICAL  89 

without  mentioning  the  arrival  in  1906  of  a  milking 
machine  which  gives  reasonable  assurance  that  the 
mechanical  milking  of  cows  is  commercially  prac- 
ticable, especially  if  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  has 
some  knack  in  handling  mechanical  devices. 


Appendix 


A  SUMMARY 

THERE  is  a  cause,  whether  known  or  unknown,  of 
every  effect.  In  the  following  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  present  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  quickly 
seen  the  commonest  causes  of  the  effects  or  diffi- 
culties most  frequently  met  in  ordinary  practice.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  in  most  cases  there  are  several 
causes  which  may  contribute  to  a  certain  effect. 


SEPARATING 


Causes 

Irregular  inflow  .  . 
Vibration  of  bowl 
Irregular  speed  ..  . 
Cold  milk  . 


Effects 


Increased  flow  . . 
Insufficient  speed 
Flushing  bowl  .  . 

Small  cream  exit. 
Increased  speed  . 
Reduced  inflow  . 

Uniform  speed 
Sufficient  speed 
Proper  temperature 

Sour  milk  .... 
Too  rich  cream 
Cold  milk 


.Large  loss 


,  Thin   cream 


Thick   cream 

Small  loss 

Clogging 


APPENDIX 


Skims  cleanest 

Smallest   bowl 

Slowest  speed 

Fewest  parts 

Skims  at  lowest  tempera-     Best  separator 

ture    

Best  workmanship 

Easiest  adjusted 

Lightest  running 

Easiest  cleaned   

CHURNING 

Causes  Effects 

Gluten  feeds 1 

Oil  meal   [ Soft  butter 

High  temperature   j 

Cream  of  unequal  ripenessl 

High  temperature  I Large  loss  in  the 

Thin  cream f  buttermilk 

Sweet  cream J 

Low  temperature  ...... 

Ripe  cream  J. Small  loss 

Evenly  ripe 

Rich  cream 

Low  temperature 

Very  thin  cream 

Very  thick  cream 

Sweet  cream     ^ S1       churning 

Churn  too  full 

Slow  agitation  

Cream  from  stripper  cows 
Cream  of  unequal  ripenesSj 


FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 


Cream  exposed  to  odors. 

Overripe  cream 

Decaying  feed   

Moldy  feed J- . .  Impaired  flavor  of  butter 

Impure  drinking  water.  . 

Stable  odors 

Sick  cows  

Overripe  cream 1 

Dried  cream > Specks  in  butter 

Foreign  matter J 

Uneven  temperature 
Uneven  salting   .... 

Insufficient  washing ^ Mottleg  Qr  streaks 

Insufficient  working.  . . 

Sudden  chilling 

Change  of  temperature 

Over  working 

Over  heating , 

Over  churning }• Texture   injured 

Slipping  of  tools  in  work- 
ing    

Thin  cream 

Sweet  cream 

.Difficult 

Advanced  period  of  lacta- 
tion    

Succulent  feeds I       •;  Hi  h      co)ored 

Summer  feeds } 

~  ,  ,          .  ( Light  colored  butter 

Cottonseed  meal j *       Hard  butter 


APPENDIX 


93 


TESTING 


Causes 

Too  warm  milk . . 
Too  strong  acid . . 
Too  much  acid . . 


Effects 


,  Chars  fat 


Insufficient  mixture 
Foreign  matter 

Cold  milk 

Cold  acid 

Weak  acid 

Insufficient  acid. . 


Dark  sediment 

White  fat 

White  sediment  and  light- 
colored  fat 


L^av^v*.^       *...*.... 

bottle \ 

pipette J 


Insufficient  speed  (tester) 

Too  cold 

Delay  in  reading 

Broken  pipette 

Too  hot 
Unclean 
Unclean 

Sample  by  weight 

More  acid 

Higher  speed  

More  heat 

Double  neck  bottle 

Maintains  uniform  tem- 
perature   

Maintains  uniform  speed. 

Easiest  controlled 

Breaks  fewest  bottles .... 

Does  not  tremble 

Easiest  balanced 

Has  top  and  bottom  bear- 
ing    

Necks  of  bottles  not  ex- 
posed     


Low  reading 


. .  High  reading 
.   Cream 


.For  skim  milk 
For   buttermilk 


Best  tester 


94  FIRST    LESSONS    IN    DAIRYING 

MISCELLANEOUS  DATA 

Temperatures 

Milk  when  drawn 98° 

for   shallow   setting 60° 

deep    setting 40°   to     45° 

separating 80°  to    95° 

ripening    cream 65°  to     75° 

Churning     50°  to     64° 

Milk  for  city  delivery 45°  to     50° 

Milk  for  calf  feeding 95°  to  100° 

Reading  test  bottles 120°  to  140° 

Skim  milk  starter  set  at 90° 

Keep    above    75° ;    if   necessary,    warm    up    after   6    to    10 
hours. 

Time 

For  cream  to  rise 

in  shallow  pans 24  to  36  hours 

in  deep  setting 12  to  24  hours 

cream  to  ripen 18  to  24  hours 

churning  ripe  cream 20  to  40  minutes 

First  whirling  of  test  bottles 5  minutes  at  full 

speed 

Second  and  third  whirling  of  test  bottles  i  to  2  minutes 

Per  cent,  of  Fat 

Average   milk 3-7% 

Guernsey    5.0% 

Jersey   5-O% 

Shorthorn    4-i% 

Ayrshire   3-7% 

Holstein    3-5% 

First   milk    drawn 0.8  to     2.0% 

Last  milk  drawn 5 .o  to  12     % 

Rich    cream 35 .  o  to  50     % 

Commercial    cream 20.0  to  25     % 

Butter.                       ... 83.0  to  88     % 


APPENDIX  95 

Loss  of  Fat  should  not  be  over 

In  dilution  skim  milk 0.7  to  i.o  % 

Shallow  pan  skim  milk 0.5  to  0.7  % 

Deep  setting  skim  milk 0.2  to  0.5   % 

Separator   skim   milk 0.03  to  0.05% 

Buttermilk  o.i  to  0.2  % 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Albumen 9 

Alveoli    2 

Ash g,  19 

Babcock  test 74 

acid  used 76 

outfit    75 

principle   of 74 

reading   76 

sample    for 74 

whirling   76 

Bacteria 33 

control    of 35 

distribution  of 35 

from  udder 63 

in  stable  air 62 

progeny   of 67 

Butter,  body 79 

carton 51 

classification  of 80 

color   80 

creamery    80 

dairy    81 

degree   of  saltiness 80 

factory 81 

flavor   79 

grades  of 81,  82,  83 

grading   78 

imitation   creamery 81 

judging 78 

marketing 52 

Buttermilk,    straining   of 48 

package   50 

package,  shape  of 80 

printer 51 

proper  color 47 

renovated   81 

salted    48 

standard   print 51 

trying    79 

washy   48 


PAGE 

Buttermilk,  working 49 

Casein 9 

Centrifugal  force 25 

Centrifugal    separator 87 

Champion  cooler 68 

Cheese    factory 55 

Churn,   barrel    45 

preparation  of 46 

revolving 45 

swing 46 

Churning 43,  47,  91,  92 

Circulator   system 5 

Colostrum 12 

Condensing    factory 55 

Cooley  creamer 23 

Cream   57 

agitation  of 45 

bacteria  in 38 

care   of   68 

churnability    37 

flavor  of 37 

how  to 94 

improved  keeping  quality. . .  38 

loss  of  fat 95 

per  cent,  of  fat 94 

regulating  thickness 28 

relative  amount 59 

ripeness  of 43 

ripening,  object  of 37 

separation  of 25 

standardizing   59 

sweet 39 

temperature  for  churning. 43,  44 

testing 77 

variations  in  test 31 

Creamers,   forms  of 24 

Creaming,    centrifugal 22 

deep  setting  method 23 

gravity    22 

methods  of 22 


98 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Creaming,  principles  of 20 

Dairy,  historical, 

84,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89 

Dairy  room,  equipment 69,  70 

Fat  globules  in  milk 58 

size  of 12,  13 

sources    of 8 

Fermentation 33 

Gland   lobule 2 

Grease    81 

Guernsey  cow,  Dolly  Bloom. .  .  i 

Mary   Marshall 7 

Ice  house   72 

Infection,    preventing 62 

Lactometer,   illustrated 20,  21 

Market  milk 61 

Marketing  milk 53 

Milk,    certified 56 

cistern   2 

coloring   matter 19 

composition  of 1 1 

contamination 63 

cooling 66 

dilution  of 24 

duct 2 

incentives  to   secretion i 

markets 54 

prices  of 54 

retailing    56 

returns  for 53 

secretion    of i 

secretion,  theory  of 7 

shipping  in  cans 55 

slimy  or  ropy 34 

standardizing 58,  59 

strainers  for 66 

sugar  of 16 

temperature  to  separate ....  28 

veins 4,  8 

Milk  pail 35 

Cornell  type 64 

forms  of 64,  65 


PAGE 

Milk  pail,  Guerler  type 65 

North's  style 65 

Milking  veins 4,  8 

Pasteurization    57 

Preventing  infection 62 

Separating    90 

Separator,  advantages  of... 31,  32 

centrifugal   25 

clogging    31 

De   Laval  bowl 27 

efficiency   of 26 

leaks 31 

methods  of  handling 31 

rate  of  inflow 28 

Simplex 27 

smoothness  of  running 29 

suggestions    29,  30 

Sinks,  in  dairy  room 71 

Skim  milk  testing 77 

Specific  gravity 20 

Sphincter   muscle 2 

Star  cooler 67 

Starter,    commercial 41 

home  made 40 

Temperatures 94 

Testing   93 

Thermometer    44 

Utensils,    washing 72 

Udder,  abnormal 9 

cross  section 2 

development    of i 

dirt   from 64 

funnel  shaped 9 

lacking    development 9 

longitudinal  section 3 

shape  of 10 

structure    of 2 

unbalanced 9 

well  balanced 10 

Veins  and  base  of  udder 6 

Water,  contamination  of 71 


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